Rostislav Lidin - Chemistry. A complete guide to preparing for the Unified State Exam

M.: 2017. - 256 p. M.: 2016. - 256 p.

New directory contains all the theoretical material for the chemistry course necessary for passing the Unified State Exam. It includes all elements of content, verified by test materials, and helps to generalize and systematize knowledge and skills for a secondary (high) school course. The theoretical material is presented in a concise and accessible form. Each topic is accompanied by examples of test tasks. Practical tasks correspond to the Unified State Exam format. Answers to the tests are provided at the end of the manual. The manual is addressed to schoolchildren, applicants and teachers.

Format: pdf ( 2017 , 256 pp.)

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Format: pdf ( 2016 , 256 pp.)

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CONTENT
Preface 12
IMPORTANT CHEMICAL CONCEPTS AND LAWS 14
1. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMISTRY 18
1.1. Modern representations about the structure of the atom 18
1.1.1. Structure of electronic shells of atoms of elements 18
Examples of tasks 24
1.2. Periodic law and Periodic table chemical elements D.I. Mendeleeva 25
1.2.1. Patterns of changes in the properties of elements and their compounds by periods and groups 25
Sample tasks 28
1.2.2. general characteristics metals of IA-ША-groups in connection with their position in the Periodic Table of chemical elements
DI. Mendeleev and the structural features of their atoms 28
Examples of tasks 29
1.2.3. Characteristics of transition elements (copper, zinc, chromium, iron) according to their position in the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements D.I. Mendeleev
and the structural features of their atoms 30
Examples of tasks 30
1.2.4. General characteristics of non-metals of IVA-VIIA groups in connection with their position in the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements D.I. Mendeleev
and the structural features of their atoms 31
Examples of tasks 31
1.3. Chemical bond and structure of matter 32
1.3.1. Covalent chemical bond, its varieties and mechanisms of formation. Characteristics covalent bond(polarity and binding energy). Ionic bond.
Metal connection. Hydrogen bond 32
Examples of tasks 36
1.3.2. Electronegativity. Oxidation state and valence of chemical elements 37
Examples of tasks 39
1.3.3. Substances of molecular and non-molecular structure. Type of crystal lattice. Dependence of the properties of substances on their composition
and buildings 41
Examples of tasks 43
1.4. Chemical reaction 43
1.4.1. Classification of chemical reactions in inorganic and organic chemistry 43
Examples of tasks 45
1.4.2. Thermal effect of a chemical reaction. Thermochemical Equations 46
Examples of tasks 48
1.4.3. Reaction speed, its dependence on various factors 48
Examples of tasks 50
1.4.4. Reversible and irreversible chemical reactions. Chemical balance. Bias chemical equilibrium under the influence of various factors 50
Examples of tasks
1.4.5. Electrolytic dissociation electrolytes in aqueous solutions. Strong and weak electrolytes 53
Examples of tasks 54
1.4.6. Ion exchange reactions 54
Examples of tasks 56
1.4.7. Aqueous solution environment: acidic, neutral, alkaline. Hydrolysis of salts 57
Examples of tasks 59
1.4.8. Redox reactions. Corrosion of metals and methods of protection against it 60
Examples of tasks 64
1.4.9. Electrolysis of melts and solutions (salts, alkalis, acids) 65
Examples of tasks 66
1.4.10. Ionic (V.V. Markovnikov’s rule) and radical reaction mechanisms in organic chemistry 67
Examples of tasks 69
2. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 71
2.1. Classification is not organic matter. Nomenclature of inorganic substances (trivial and international) 71
Examples of tasks 75
2.2. Characteristic chemical properties of simple substances - metals: alkali, alkaline earth, aluminum; transition metals
(copper, zinc, chromium, iron) 76
Examples of tasks 79
2.3. Characteristic chemical properties of simple substances - non-metals: hydrogen, halogens, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen,
phosphorus, carbon, silicon 81
Examples of tasks 83
2.4. Characteristic chemical properties of oxides: basic, amphoteric, acidic 84
Examples of tasks 86
2.5. Characteristic chemical properties of bases and amphoteric hydroxides 87
Examples of tasks 88
2.6. Characteristic chemical properties of acids 90
Examples of tasks 93
2.7. Characteristic chemical properties of salts: medium, acidic, basic; complex (using the example of aluminum and zinc compounds) 94
Examples of tasks 96
2.8. Interrelation of various classes of inorganic substances 97
Examples of tasks 100
3. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 102
3.1. Theory of the structure of organic compounds: homology and isomerism (structural and spatial).
Mutual influence of atoms in molecules 102
Examples of tasks 105
3.2. Types of bonds in molecules of organic substances. Hybridization of carbon atomic orbitals. Radical.
Functional group 106
Examples of tasks 109
3.3. Classification of organic substances. Nomenclature of organic substances (trivial and international) 109
Examples of tasks 115
3.4. Characteristic chemical properties of hydrocarbons: alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkenes, dienes, alkynes, aromatic hydrocarbons(benzene and toluene) 116
Examples of tasks 121
3.5. Characteristic chemical properties of saturated monohydric and polyhydric alcohols, phenol 121
Examples of tasks 124
3.6. Characteristic chemical properties of aldehydes, saturated carboxylic acids, esters 125
Examples of tasks 128
3.7. Characteristic chemical properties of nitrogen-containing organic compounds: amines and amino acids 129
Examples of tasks 132
3.8. Biologically important substances: fats, proteins, carbohydrates (monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides) 133
Examples of tasks 138
3.9. Relationship between organic compounds 139
Examples of tasks 143
4. METHODS OF KNOWLEDGE IN CHEMISTRY. CHEMISTRY AND LIFE 145
4.1. Experimental Fundamentals of Chemistry 145
4.1.1. Rules for working in the laboratory. Laboratory glassware and equipment. Safety rules when working with caustic, flammable and toxic substances,
household chemicals 145
Examples of tasks 150
4.1.2. Scientific methods research chemical substances and transformations. Methods for separating mixtures and purifying substances 150
Examples of tasks 152
4.1.3. Determination of the nature of the medium of aqueous solutions of substances. Indicators 152
Examples of tasks 153
4.1.4. Qualitative reactions on inorganic substances and ions 153
Examples of tasks 156
4.1.5. Qualitative reactions of organic compounds 158
Examples of tasks 159
4.1.6. The main methods of obtaining (in the laboratory) specific substances belonging to the studied classes inorganic compounds 160
Examples of tasks 165
4.1.7. The main methods of obtaining hydrocarbons (in the laboratory) 165
Examples of tasks 167
4.1.8. The main methods for obtaining oxygen-containing compounds (in the laboratory) 167
Examples of tasks 170
4.2. General views on industrial methods for obtaining essential substances 171
4.2.1. Concept of metallurgy: general methods obtaining metals 171
Examples of tasks 174
4.2.2. Are common scientific principles chemical production(using the example of industrial production of ammonia, sulfuric acid, methanol). Chemical pollution
environment and its consequences 174
Examples of tasks 176
4.2.3. Natural springs hydrocarbons, their processing 177
Examples of tasks 180
4.2.4. High molecular weight compounds. Polymerization and polycondensation reactions 181
Examples of tasks 184
4.3. Calculations according to chemical formulas and reaction equations 184
4.3.1. Calculation of the mass of a solute contained in a certain mass of a solution with a known mass fraction; calculating the mass fraction of a substance in a solution 184
Examples of tasks 186
4.3.2. Calculations of volumetric ratios of gases in chemical reactions 186
Examples of tasks 187
4.3.3. Calculation of the mass of a substance or volume of gases from a known amount of a substance, mass or volume of one
of the substances involved in the reaction 187
Examples of tasks 188
4.3.4. Calculations of the thermal effect of the reaction 189
Examples of tasks 189
4.3.5. Calculation of the mass (volume, amount of substance) of reaction products, if one of the substances is given in excess (has impurities) 190
Examples of tasks 190
4.3.6. Calculation of the mass (volume, amount of substance) of the reaction product, if one of the substances is given in the form of a solution
with a certain mass fraction of dissolved substance 191
Examples of tasks 191
4.3.7. Finding the molecular formula of a substance 192
Examples of tasks 194
4.3.8. Calculations of the mass or volume fraction of the yield of the reaction product from the theoretically possible 195
Examples of tasks 195
4.3.9. Mass fraction (mass) calculations chemical compound in the mixture 196
Examples of tasks 196
Application
CHEMISTRY OF ELEMENTS 198
Hydrogen 198
Elements IA-group 200
Group IIA elements 202
Elements of SHA group 204
Elements of IVA group 206
Elements of VA-group 211
Elements of VTA group 218
Elements of VTIA-group 223
Periodic table of chemical elements D.I. Mendeleeva 230
IUPAC: Periodic table elements 232
Solubility of bases, acids and salts in water 234
Valency of some chemical elements 235
Acids and names of their salts 235
Atomic radii of elements 236
Some of the most important physical constants 237
Prefixes when forming multiples
And submultiple units 237
Prevalence of elements in earth's crust 238
Answers to tasks 240

The new reference book includes all theoretical material school course in chemistry, necessary for preparing and passing the unified state exam.
The contents of the book are based on control and measuring materials that determine the volume educational material, which is verified by the state final certification.
The theoretical material of the reference book is presented in a concise and accessible form. The clarity of presentation and clarity of the educational material will allow you to effectively prepare for the exam.
Each section of the book corresponds to four content blocks tested on the Unified State Exam: “ Theoretical basis chemistry" - Periodic law and Periodic table of chemical elements D.I. Mendeleev, chemical bond and structure of matter, chemical reaction; "Inorganic chemistry", " Organic chemistry", "Methods of knowledge of chemistry. Chemistry and Life" - experimental foundations of chemistry, general ideas about industrial methods for obtaining the most important substances.

R. A. Lidin

Chemistry: A complete guide to preparing for the Unified State Exam

Preface

The reference book includes all the theoretical material of the school chemistry course required to pass the Unified State Exam - final certification students. This material is distributed into 14 sections, the content of which corresponds to the topics tested on the Unified State Exam - four content blocks: “Chemical element”, “Substance”, “Chemical reaction”, “Knowledge and application of substances and chemical reactions”. For each section, training tasks from parts A and B are given - with a choice of answers and a short answer. Section 15 is entirely devoted to solving the calculation problems included in exam part C.

Test tasks are compiled in such a way that, by answering them, the student will be able to more rationally repeat the main provisions of the school chemistry course.

At the end of the manual, answers to tests are provided that will help schoolchildren and applicants test themselves and fill in existing gaps.

For the convenience of working with this reference book, a table is provided that shows the correspondence between the topics of the exam and the sections of the book.

The manual is addressed to high school students, applicants and teachers.

1. Common elements. structure of atoms. Electronic shells. Orbitals

Chemical element- a specific type of atom, designated by name and symbol and characterized by atomic number and relative atomic mass.

In table 1 lists common chemical elements, gives the symbols by which they are designated (pronunciation in brackets), serial numbers, relative atomic masses, characteristic degrees oxidation.

Zero oxidation state of an element in its simple matter(substances) is not indicated in the table.

All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons in the nucleus and the same number of electrons in the shell. So, in an atom of an element hydrogen N is 1 p+ in the core and periphery 1 e-; in an element atom oxygen O is 8 p+ in the core and 8 e- in a shell; element atom aluminum Al contains 13 R+ in the core and 13 e- in a shell.

Atoms of the same element can differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus; such atoms are called isotopes. So, the element hydrogen H three isotopes: hydrogen-1 (special name and symbol protium 1H) from 1 p+ in the core and 1 e- in a shell; hydrogen-2 (deuterium 2H, or D) from 1 p+ and 1 P 0 in the core and 1 e- in a shell; hydrogen-3 (tritium 3H, or T) from 1 p+ and 2 P 0 in the core and 1 e- in a shell. In the symbols 1H, 2H and 3H, the superscript indicates mass number– the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Other examples:

Electronic formula an atom of any chemical element in accordance with its location in D.I. Mendeleev’s Periodic Table of Elements can be determined from the table. 2.

The electron shell of any atom is divided into energy levels (1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.), levels are divided into sublevels(indicated by letters s, p, d, f). Sublevels consist of atomic orbitals – areas of space where electrons are likely to reside. Orbitals are designated as 1s (1st level s-sublevel orbital), 2 s, 2R, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s... Number of orbitals in sublevels:

The filling of atomic orbitals with electrons occurs in accordance with three conditions:

1) principle of minimum energy

Electrons fill the orbitals, starting with the sublevel with lower energy.

The sequence of increasing energy of sublevels:

1s < 2c < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s ≤ 3d < 4p < 5s ≤ 4d < 5p < 6s…

2)exclusion rule (Pauli principle)

Each orbital can accommodate no more than two electrons.

One electron in an orbital is called unpaired, two electrons are called electronic pair:

3) principle of maximum multiplicity (Hund's rule)

Within a sublevel, electrons first fill all orbitals halfway, and then completely.

Each electron has its own characteristic - spin (conventionally represented by an up or down arrow). The electron spins add up as vectors, the sum of the spins given number electrons at the sublevel should be maximum(multiplicity):

Filling of levels, sublevels and orbitals of atoms of elements from H with electrons (Z = 1) up to Kr (Z = 36) shown in energy diagram(the numbers correspond to the filling sequence and coincide with the ordinal numbers of the elements):

From the completed energy diagrams, electronic formulas atoms of elements. The number of electrons in the orbitals of a given sublevel is indicated in the superscript to the right of the letter (for example, 3 d 5 is 5 electrons per Z d-sublevel); first come the electrons of the 1st level, then the 2nd, 3rd, etc. The formulas can be complete and brief, the latter contain in brackets the symbol of the corresponding noble gas, which conveys its formula, and, moreover, starting with Zn , filled inner d-sublevel. Examples:

3Li = 1s22s1 = 2s1

8O = 1s2 2s22p4 = 2s22p4

13Al = 1s22s22p6 3s23p1 = 3s23p1

17Cl = 1s22s22p6 3s23p5 = 3s23p5

2OCа = 1s22s22p63s23p 4s2 = 4s2

21Sc = 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d14s2 = 3d14s2

25Mn = 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d54s2 = 3d54s2

26Fe = 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d64s2 = 3d64s2

3OZn = 1s22s22p63s23p63d10 4s2 = 4s2

33As = 1s22s22p63s23p63d10 4s24p3 = 4s24p3

36Kr = 1s22s22p63s23p63d10 4s24p6 = 4s24p6

Electrons placed outside the brackets are called valence They are the ones who take part in the formation of chemical bonds.

The exceptions are:

24Cr = 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d54s1 = Зd54s1(not 3d44s2!),

29Cu = 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d104s1 = 3d104s1(not 3d94s2!).

Examples of Part A tasks

1. Title, not relevant to hydrogen isotopes, is

1) deuterium

2) oxonium

2. The formula for the valence sublevels of a metal atom is

3. The number of unpaired electrons in the ground state of an iron atom is

4. In the excited state of an aluminum atom, the number of unpaired electrons is equal to

5. Electronic formula 3d94s0 corresponds to the cation

6. The electronic formula of the E2-3s23p6 anion corresponds to the element

7. The total number of electrons in the Mg2+ cation and the F- anion is equal to

2. Periodic law. Periodic system. Electronegativity. Oxidation states

Modern formulation of the Periodic Law, discovered by D. I. Mendeleev in 1869:

The properties of elements are periodically dependent on the ordinal number.

The periodically repeating nature of changes in the composition of the electronic shell of atoms of elements explains the periodic change in the properties of elements when moving through the periods and groups of the Periodic System.

The test tasks are designed in such a way that, by answering them, the student will be able to more rationally repeat the main provisions of the school chemistry course.

At the end of the manual, answers to tests are provided that will help schoolchildren and applicants test themselves and fill in existing gaps.

For the convenience of working with this reference book, a table is provided that shows the correspondence between the topics of the exam and the sections of the book.

The manual is addressed to high school students, applicants and teachers.

1. Common elements. structure of atoms. Electronic shells. Orbitals

Chemical element- a specific type of atom, designated by name and symbol and characterized by atomic number and relative atomic mass.

In table Table 1 lists common chemical elements, gives the symbols by which they are designated (pronunciation in brackets), serial numbers, relative atomic masses, and characteristic oxidation states.

Zero The oxidation state of an element in its simple substance(s) is not indicated in the table.

All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons in the nucleus and the same number of electrons in the shell. So, in an atom of an element hydrogen N is 1 p + in the core and periphery 1 e- ; in an element atom oxygen O is 8 p + in the core and 8 e- in a shell; element atom aluminum Al contains 13 R+ in the core and 13 e- in a shell.

Atoms of the same element can differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus; such atoms are called isotopes. So, the element hydrogen H three isotopes: hydrogen-1 (special name and symbol protium 1 H) with 1 p + in the core and 1 e- in a shell; hydrogen-2 (deuterium 2 N, or D) with 1 p + and 1 P 0 in the core and 1 e- in a shell; hydrogen-3 (tritium 3 N, or T) with 1 p + and 2 P 0 in the core and 1 e- in a shell. In the symbols 1H, 2H and 3H, the superscript indicates mass number– the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Other examples:

Electronic formula an atom of any chemical element in accordance with its location in D.I. Mendeleev’s Periodic Table of Elements can be determined from the table. 2.

The electron shell of any atom is divided into energy levels(1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.), levels are divided into sublevels(indicated by letters s, p, d, f). Sublevels consist of atomic orbitals– areas of space where electrons are likely to reside. Orbitals are designated as 1s (1st level s-sublevel orbital), 2 s, 2 R, 3 s, 3 p, 3d, 4 s... Number of orbitals in sublevels:

The filling of atomic orbitals with electrons occurs in accordance with three conditions:

1) principle of minimum energy

Electrons fill the orbitals, starting with the sublevel with lower energy.

The sequence of increasing energy of sublevels:

1 s< 2 c< 2 p< 3 s< 3 p< 4 s≤ 3 d< 4 p< 5 s≤ 4 d< 5 p< 6 s…

2) exclusion rule (Pauli principle)

Each orbital can accommodate no more than two electrons.

One electron in an orbital is called unpaired, two electrons are called electronic pair:

3) principle of maximum multiplicity (Hund's rule)

3 Li = 1s 2 2s 1 = [ 2 He]2s 1

8 O = 1s 2 2s 2 2p 4= [2 He] 2s 2 2p 4

13 Al = 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 1= [10 Ne] 3s 2 3p 1

The reference book includes all the theoretical material of the school chemistry course required to pass the Unified State Exam, the final certification of students. This material is distributed into 14 sections, the content of which corresponds to the topics tested on the Unified State Exam - four content blocks: “Chemical element”, “Substance”, “Chemical reaction”, “Knowledge and application of substances and chemical reactions”. For each section, training tasks from parts A and B are given - with a choice of answers and a short answer. Section 15 is entirely devoted to solving the calculation problems included in exam part C.
The test tasks are designed in such a way that, by answering them, the student will be able to more rationally repeat the main provisions of the school chemistry course.
At the end of the manual, answers to tests are provided that will help schoolchildren and applicants test themselves and fill in existing gaps.
For the convenience of working with this reference book, a table is provided that shows the correspondence between the topics of the exam and the sections of the book.
The manual is addressed to high school students, applicants and teachers.

Preface
1. Common elements. structure of atoms. Electronic shells. Orbitals
2. Periodic law. Periodic system. Electronegativity. Oxidation states
3. Molecules. Chemical bond. Structure of substances
4. Classification and relationship of inorganic substances
5. Metals of the main subgroups of groups I–III
5.1. Sodium
5.2. Potassium
5.3. Calcium
5.4. Hardness of water
5.5. Aluminum
6. Transition metals of the 4th period. Properties, methods of production. General properties metals
6.1. Chromium
6.2. Manganese
6.3. Iron
6.4. General properties of metals. Corrosion
7. Nonmetals of the main subgroups of groups IV–VII
7.1. Hydrogen
7.2. Halogens
7.2.1. Chlorine. Hydrogen chloride
7.2.2. Chlorides
7.2.3. Hypochlorites. Chlorates
7.2.4. Bromides. Iodides
7.3. Chalcogens
7.3.1. Oxygen
7.3.2. Sulfur. Hydrogen sulfide. Sulfides
7.3.3. Sulfur dioxide. Sulfites
7.3.4. Sulfuric acid. Sulfates
7.4. Non-metals VA-group
7.4.1. Nitrogen. Ammonia
7.4.2. Nitrogen oxides. Nitric acid
7.4.3. Nitrites. Nitrates
7.4.4. Phosphorus
7.5. Non-metals of group IVA
7.5.1. Free carbon
7.5.2. Carbon oxides
7.5.3. Carbonates
7.5.4. Silicon
8. Theory of structure, diversity, classification and nomenclature of organic compounds. Types of chemical reactions
9. Hydrocarbons. Homology and isomerism. Chemical properties and methods of obtaining
9.1. Alkanes. Cycloalkanes
9.2. Alkenes. Alcadienes
9.3. Alkynes
9.4. Arenas
10. Oxygen-containing organic compounds
10.1. Alcohols. Ethers. Phenols
10.2. Aldehydes and ketones
10.3. Carboxylic acids. Esters. Fats
10.4. Carbohydrates
11. Nitrogen-containing organic compounds
11.1. Nitro compounds. Amines
11.2. Amino acids. Squirrels
12. Chemical reactions. Speed, energy and reversibility
12.1. Reaction speed
12.2. Energy of reactions
12.3. Reversibility of reactions
13. Aqueous solutions. Solubility and dissociation of substances. Ion exchange. Hydrolysis of salts
13.1. Solubility of substances in water
13.2. Electrolytic dissociation
13.3. Dissociation of water. Solution medium
13.4. Ion exchange reactions
13.5. Hydrolysis of salts
14. Redox reactions. Electrolysis
14.1. Oxidizing agents and reducing agents
14.2. Selection of odds using the electronic balance method
14.3. Metal stress range
14.4. Electrolysis of melt and solution
15. Solving calculation problems
15.1. Mass fraction of solute. Dilution, concentration and mixing of solutions
15.2. Gas volume ratio
15.3. Mass of a substance (volume of gas) based on a known amount of another reactant (product)
15.4. Thermal effect of reaction
15.5. Mass (volume, amount of substance) of the product by reagent in excess or with impurities
15.6. Mass (volume, amount of substance) of a product based on a reagent with a known mass fraction in solution
15.7. Finding the molecular formula of an organic compound
Answers