Conquest of Genghis Khan table. The Great Genghis Khan: how he lived and whom the founder of the Mongol Empire was able to conquer

In the 12th century Mongol tribes inhabited the territory southeast of Lake Baikal, forming tribal unions, among which the largest were the Keraits, Merkits, Naimans, Taichjiuts and Tatars. The name of the latter was transferred by neighboring peoples to the entire group of these closely related tribes; They began to call themselves Mongols only from the time of the creation of the power of Genghis Khan.

Within the framework of the clan system under which the Mongols lived in the 12th century, feudal relations were already beginning to develop. A layer of nobility was formed from the elected military leaders, affiliation with which under Genghis Khan was hereditary. At the head of the tribe was a khan, whose clan enjoyed greatest influence among the nobility. At the lowest level of the tribal hierarchy were forced arats and captive slaves.

Genghis Khan came from a noble and wealthy Borjigin family in the Taichjiut tribe. Having become the Great Khan, Genghis Khan improved the organization of the Mongol army, thanks to which it was subsequently considered invincible. Genghis Khan's cavalry was divided into "thousands" (10,000), "thousands", "hundreds" and "tens". This number of warriors was fielded in the militia from each tribal association, tribe, tribe or clan, the territory of which was the fief of the corresponding military leader.

Already in 1207, Genghis Khan began his campaigns of conquest, directing the first blow against the Tangut state of Xi-Xia in northern China. The ruler of this power undertook to pay tribute to the Mongols. And in 1211, the main forces of the Mongols set out to capture the rest of Northern China, which was then under the rule of the Jurchens, part of their state of Jin. Having overcome the Great Wall of China, the Mongol army moved inland towards its capital - Yanjing (modern Beijing). By 1215, almost the entire territory of the Jin state passed to the Mongols, and Yanjing was plundered and burned. After this, the conquerors with rich booty retreated to their capital Karakorum, located south of Lake Baikal.

Expansion of Mongol conquestsniya

Having interrupted hostilities in Northern China, Genghis Khan in 1219 sent his troops west, to Khorezm, the largest state at that time Central Asia. In 1220, the Mongols captured Bukhara and Samarkand. The Khorezm state fell. Khorezm Shah Mohammed fled and hid on one of the islands in the Caspian Sea, where he soon died. The Mongol cavalry, pursuing his son Jalal-ad-din, penetrated into North-West India, but here the conquerors encountered strong resistance, which stopped their advance into the interior of Hindustan.

In 1221, all of Central Asia, plundered and devastated by the invaders, was conquered. At the same time, part of the Mongol army, rounding the Caspian Sea from the south, invaded Transcaucasia. From here the Mongols penetrated into the North Caucasus and the Azov steppes. Here, near the Sea of ​​Azov, in the battle on the Kalka River on May 31, 1223, they defeated the united Russian-Polovtsian detachments. This was the first clash between Rus' and Mongol troops.

Returning to Mongolia after these victories, Genghis Khan set out on his last campaign in 1226 to complete the defeat of the Xi-Xia state, which was destroyed in 1227, and its population was exterminated or taken into slavery. That same year, Genghis Khan died.

Two years later, a khural was held, which, fulfilling the will of Genghis Khan, elected one of his four sons, Ogedei, as the Great Khan. All four, in addition, according to Genghis Khan's will, received special uluses as an allotment, into which the huge Mongol power was divided.

Genghis Khan's childhood and youth

Exact date of birth Temuchina, which later received the name, is still unknown. However, it can be argued that this was the time of the collapse of the first Mongol state Khamag approximately in the $50$-$60$ years of the $12th century. Father Temuchina, name Yesugai-baatur, he was poisoned by the Tatars, with whom he was born Temuchina was in a hostile relationship. This happened when Temuchin I was nine years old and left alone. People who previously submitted Yesugaya-baaturu, left him with his mother Hoelun-fujin and brothers to their fate. As a youth Temujin was subjected to the ruler of the Taichiut tribe Torgutai-Kiriltukh punishment for being together with his younger brother, Khasar, killed his half-brother Bektera based on rivalry. For this, he was kept for a long time as a prisoner with a wooden block around his neck.

Note 1

It was this fact that gave rise to the myth often found in sources that in his youth Temujin was a slave.

The struggle for dominance in the steppe

Having escaped, Temujin Over time, he gathered nukers around him and in the $70s-$80s of the $12th century. took the first steps towards dominance among the Mongols. Significant assistance in uniting the disparate ulus Temuchin rendered Tooril Khan, ruler of the Kereyites, who was his father's brother-in-arms. At this time, bet Temuchina attacked by the Merkits, who captured his wife - Borte. This event allowed Tooril Khan start a campaign against the Merkits. In $1177$-$1178$. The Merkits were defeated. Temujin regained his wife, and his supporters captured booty and slaves. Already at this time Temujin showed his cruel character by ordering that none of the Merkits be left alive, but that everyone be killed.

Example 1

First big battle Temujin spent in $1193 when he defeated his father-in-law's $10,000 army Ung Khan, having only $6$ thousand warriors. Commander of the army Ung Khan Sanguk Confident in the superiority of the army entrusted to him, he did not take care of either reconnaissance or combat security. That's why Temujin was able to take the enemy by surprise and completely destroyed it.

Victory Temuchin over the Merkits allowed him to attract other Mongol tribes to his side, who meekly provided him with their warriors. Army Temuchina grew steadily, and after it the territories of the Mongolian steppe under his control expanded. Temujin constantly waged wars with all the Mongol tribes who did not recognize his supreme power. He was distinguished by perseverance and extreme cruelty, for example, on his order, the Tatar tribe that did not submit to him was completely exterminated (however, ironically, the Mongols began to be called by this name in Europe). Temujin perfectly mastered the tactics of the steppe war, suddenly attacking neighboring tribes, he invariably won victories. In $1206, Temujin emerged as the most powerful ruler in the steppes north of the Great Wall of China. It was this year at the kurultai (i.e. congress) of the Mongolian feudal lords that he was proclaimed "great khan" over all the Mongols, giving him the title.

Note 2

Most historians agree that this title comes from the Turkic word "tengis"- ocean, and meant "khan whose power is as boundless as the ocean".

Military reforms of Genghis Khan

To maintain their power and suppress any manifestation of discontent created a special horse guard numbering up to $10,000 people. Only the best warriors from the Mongol tribes, who enjoyed great privileges, got into it. They were also personal bodyguards . From among them, the Great Khan appointed senior commanders in the rest of the army.

He divided the army according to the decimal system: tens, hundreds, thousands and tumens ($10 thousand warriors). These units were not only accounting units, but could also carry out local combat missions, i.e. act autonomously.

The high command of the Mongolian army was built according to such a system: foreman, centurion, thousander, temnik. To the main positions, temniks, tried to appoint his sons and representatives of the family nobility from among those who had proven to him their loyalty and abilities in military affairs. The Mongol army maintained the strictest discipline at all levels of the hierarchical ladder; any violation was severely punished. The principle of mutual responsibility was applied, i.e. if one warrior fled from the battlefield, the whole ten were executed, if a dozen, then the whole hundred, etc.

He highly valued talent and personal merit and placed them above family status. Often he appointed even worthy enemies to command positions.

Example 2

For example, once a shooter from the enemy Taijiut tribe almost killed the Great Khan by hitting the horse on which he was sitting with an arrow. The shooter bravely admitted his guilt, but instead of execution he was appointed general and later received the nickname Jebe, which means arrowhead. Jebe went down in history as one of the greatest military leaders, along with General Subedei.

Campaigns of Genghis Khan

Initially making campaigns of conquest, did not always attract the all-Mongol army. His spies delivered information about the upcoming enemy, the number, location and routes of movement of his troops. All this allowed use as many troops as were necessary to defeat the enemy.

However, the commander's talent was also different: he quickly responded to the changing situation, changing tactics depending on the circumstances.

Example 3

For example, faced for the first time with the need to storm fortifications in China, began to use all kinds of siege machines. They were transported disassembled and quickly assembled during the siege of cities. When Temuchin other specialists were required who were absent among the Mongols, for example, mechanics or doctors, the khan ordered them from other countries or took them prisoner.

In $1207, the Great Khan conquered vast areas north of the Selenga River and in the upper reaches of the Yenisei. The cavalry of the conquered tribes was included in the Mongol army.

Next came the turn of the Uyghur state located in East Turkestan. In $1209$ the army entered their territory, and successively captured all their cities, won complete victory.

In $1211$ army invaded northern China. Even the Great Wall of China could not stop the conquerors. The Mongols defeated the Chinese troops and captured Beijing in 1215. In Northern China, the Mongols devastated about $90$ cities, whose inhabitants rendered resistance. In $1218, the Mongols conquered Korea.

After that turned his gaze to the West. In the same year 1218, the Mongol army moved to Central Asia and subjugated the state of Khorezm.

After the defeat of Khorezm and the conquest of Central Asia, Genghis Khan launched a campaign to the North-West of India, conquering this vast territory. But Genghis Khan did not advance to the south of the Hindustan Peninsula, since he was more attracted to unknown countries in the West. For reconnaissance sent his best commanders far to the west Jebe And Subedea with the troops. Their route ran through Iran, Transcaucasia and the North Caucasus. Thus, the Mongols approached the southern borders of Rus'. At that time, the Polovtsians were nomadic in the Don steppes, having long lost their former military force. The Mongols managed to defeat the Polovtsians without much difficulty, and they disappeared into the Russian border lands. In $1223$ Jebe And Subadei won a victory in the battle on the Kalka River over the united army of some Russian princes and Polovtsians. However, after this victory, the Mongol vanguard turned back.

Note 3

Determine the exact number of deaths as a result of the campaigns is not possible, but historians agree on a figure of about $40$ million. Sources note that during the Mongol invasion, China's population decreased by tens of millions. The population of Khorezm is three-quarters, and the total number of human losses during the campaigns of Genghis Khan, according to scientists, was $11$% of population The lands of that time.

Died great commander during his last campaign against the Tanguts in $1227$. The Mongols gave him a magnificent funeral ceremony, putting to death all its participants, in order to keep the location of the grave completely secret. .

Genghis Khan founded the largest empire in human history. According to the behests of the Great Khan, the Mongols lived until the middle of the 20th century, and many of them tend to honor his laws even today. His victories were glorified by hundreds of thousands of warriors, and his death was mourned by millions of subjects. But his state collapsed, and even his grave is unknown.

The only one preserved historical portrait Genghis Khan from a series of official portraits of rulers painted under Kublai Khan, museum.

On the banks of the Onon River, in the Deyun-Boldok tract, a boy was born into the Yesugeybagatur family from the Bordzhigin clan in the spring of 1155. He was named Temuchin in honor of the Tatar leader, captured the day before by Yesugei in a bloody battle. According to the Arab historian Rashid ad-Din, the newborn was clutching a blood clot in his fist, which, according to others, meant that the boy would become a great warrior.

LITTLE SLAVE

Temujin's father was a far-sighted leader - the boy was not even nine years old when he obtained consent for his marriage with the eldest daughter of the Ungirat leader. According to legend, this tribe was the first among all the Mongols to decide to leave the tracts and develop the steppe expanses, “trampling the hearths and camps of their neighbors.”

In the meantime, Yesugei left Temujin with his fiancee’s family so that the boy could meet his future relatives and went home.

According to the “Secret Legend” (a Chinese translation of the genealogical history of the Genghis Khan family), Yesugei was poisoned by the Tatars on the way.

The leader of the Taichiut tribe decided to expel the Yesugei clan from their native lands. Yesugei's relatives, who remained loyal to him, tried to resist, but were unable to gather enough warriors. Their camps were destroyed, their cattle were stolen. Temujin was also captured. They put a block on the future Great Khan.

The boy was destined to become a slave forever, but on the way he managed to escape. Temujin hid from the soldiers looking for him in a small dam, spending several hours under water. He kept only his nostrils above the water, and patience allowed him to avoid recapture. The little fugitive was discovered by a shepherd from an insignificant tribe subject to the Taichiuts, but decided not to hand him over, but helped him escape. The shepherd's son Chilaun also fled with Temujin. Subsequently, Genghis Khan appointed him commander of one of the four detachments of his personal guard and gave him and his descendants the right to keep for themselves everything gained from war and hunting.

FUR OR LIFE

Temujin was only eleven years old, but he was able to find his relatives in the steppes. A year later he married his betrothed Borta. The position of his family was such that the bride’s dowry was only a sable fur coat, albeit a luxurious one. Fleeing from his pursuers, Temujin had to ask for help from his father’s brother-in-law. Tooril ruled the Kereit tribe, the most powerful in the steppes in those years. He promised Temuchin protection and patronage. True, he did not hesitate to take that very fur coat as a gift.

Nevertheless, nukers who had strayed from their clans and simple shepherds who dreamed of becoming warriors began to flock to Temujin’s camp. The young leader did not refuse anyone. At the same time, Temujin became sworn brothers with Jamukha, a young relative of the leader of the strong Jadaran tribe. One old Mongol gave Temuchin his son Jelme into his service. Subsequently, this young man became one of the most talented commanders of Genghis Khan.

Soon it was time for the first serious battle. The Merkit tribe attacked Temujin's camp, taking his wife and other close relatives captive. With the help of Tooril and Jamukha, the young leader completely defeated the enemy on the Selenga River in Buryatia. He returned Borte, who soon gave birth to Temuchin’s son. This victory strengthened the authority of the young leader, and his army began to grow rapidly. Contrary to custom, he tried to end the battle with as little bloodshed as possible, joining the warriors of the defeated tribe.

Soon Temujin and Jamukha parted ways. Too many warriors of twin brother Jamukha preferred the camp of the future khan of all Mongols. Jamukha had to migrate far away in disgrace so that his warriors would not run away completely. In 1186, Temuchin created his first ulus. In his army there were three tumens (30,000), and under his hand were already famous military leaders: Subede, Jelme and Boorchu.

GREAT KHAN

Jamukha collected three tumens and moved towards Temujin. A battle took place in which the future great khan suffered a crushing defeat. According to legend, it was during an overnight stay after a lost battle that Temuchin dreamed of the borders of his future power.

In 1200, Temujin was able to take revenge on his longtime offenders, the Techiuts. In a short battle they were defeated, many surrendered. During the battle, the leader was wounded in the shoulder by an arrow. The warrior who shot him was captured. Temujin asked if he wanted to enter his service. Subsequently, this warrior became one of the best commanders of Temujin under the name Jebe (arrowhead).

The next three years were decisive. Temujin successively defeated the most powerful Mongol tribes that still challenged his rule over the steppe. Together with each of them, his brother Jamukha fought against Temujin, stung by his successes. Neither the Tatars, nor the Kereits, nor the Naiman could stop the rise of Temujin, although he almost died in the battle with the latter. Their leader Tayankhan was famous for his caution, if not cowardice. Having 45,000 horsemen at hand, he constantly improved his position and waited until his army was defeated piece by piece. During the defeat of the Naiman, Subedei, Jelme, Jebe and Kublai especially distinguished themselves - “ four iron dogs ", as Temujin called them.

In 1205 his rivalry with Jamukha came to an end. He fled to the Kipchaks and again tried to attack Temujin. But the Kipchaks were defeated, and Jamukha was given his own nukers, who were counting on a reward.

However, Temujin ordered their execution, and offered freedom to his longtime brother-in-arms. A brother brother (anda) was considered more than a relative in the Mongolian tradition. A brother could raise a weapon against his brother, and a son against his father. This was par for the course. We will be swapped with brothers - no. Nevertheless, Temujin was ready to forgive Jamukha, but he refused, saying that there can only be one khan. He asked for a dignified death (without bloodshed). Temujin's warriors broke Jamukha's back. Temujin never had any more brothers-in-arms.

COMMANDER

Genghis Khan was not so much an outstanding military leader on the battlefield - in the Mongolian steppes almost any leader could be called such. The fighting techniques did not differ either. We can safely say that Genghis Khan did not offer anything radically new. He was, rather, a remarkable strategist: he knew how to distribute forces, which made it possible to wage war on several directions, and was not afraid to trust his military leaders, which made it possible to separate forces.

Using the mobility of the Mongol cavalry, Genghis Khan confused the enemy, attacked him from all directions, and, in the end, the enemy found himself facing a united army of the Mongols. Another trump card of Genghis Khan's army was reconnaissance - an activity despised by other steppe tribes.

At the same time, Genghis Khan never made mistakes when choosing his assistants. Each of them could act independently and achieve success (unlike, for example, Napoleonic marshals). The only thing Genghis Khan demanded from his subordinates was strict adherence to orders. Mongol warriors were forbidden to take booty during battle or pursue a fleeing enemy without the permission of their commanders.

REFORMER

The Universe Shaker turned his enemies into his friends.

In the spring of 1206, at the source of the Onon River, at the all-Mongol kurultai, Temujin was proclaimed great khan over all tribes and received the title “ Genghis Khan" Came into force and new law- Yasa. It was mainly devoted to the military side of the life of nomads.

Loyalty and courage were considered good, and cowardice and betrayal were considered evil. The enemy of the Mongols, who remained loyal to their ruler, was spared and accepted into their army.

Genghis Khan divided the entire population into tens, hundreds, thousands and tumens (ten thousand), thereby mixing tribes and clans and appointing specially selected people from among the close and distinguished nukers as commanders over them. All adult and healthy men were considered warriors, thus Genghis Khan's army approached 100,000 horsemen.

In addition, he introduced the beginnings of feudal relations. Every hundred, thousand, tumen, along with nomadic lands, was given into the possession of a noyon. In case of war, it was he who was responsible for providing troops to the khan. Small noyons served large ones.

EMPIRE FROM SEA TO SEA

Within the framework of the united Mongolia, Genghis Khan's power was enormous, but neither he nor his warriors could stop.

At first, all Siberian peoples were subjugated and subject to tribute. Then the Mongols turned their gaze to the south. In a year, the Tangut state was conquered, which it could not cope with for 300 years.

The Jin Empire didn't last much longer. The Mongols invaded China with four armies, destroying everything in their path. According to the calculations of Jin officials, at the beginning of the war the Chinese could field almost one and a half million soldiers, but these hordes could not only win a single major victory, but even stop the advance of the Mongols into the capital regions.

In 1214 it was all over - the emperor concluded a shameful peace. Genghis Khan agreed to leave Beijing to him, but only because he understood: the Mongols could not hold too large a territory with many cities. After the truce, the Jin people decided to continue the fight and paid for it: as soon as imperial court left Beijing, Genghis Khan decided to end China, which was done in two years. Yasa helped the Mongols defeat the huge empire: many Chinese generals ran over to them along with their troops. The laws of Genghis Khan described in detail what threatens those who try to resist the tumens " Shaker of the Universe».

Usually, when they saw an enemy city, the Mongols hung a pennant on a pole near the military leader’s yurt. White meant that the khan was merciful and ready to take the oath if no resistance was offered. Yellow was supposed to warn that the city would be plundered, even if it capitulated, but the inhabitants would remain alive. The red pennant warned the besieged that they would all be killed.

However, only Genghis Khan’s heir, Ogedei, was able to finally achieve submission from China.

The Great Khan himself turned his gaze to the west. The huge power of Khorezm Shah Muhammad fell under the blows of his armies. Here the Mongols no longer accepted military defectors, trying to leave behind scorched earth. Only skilled artisans were taken captive - in 1220 the new capital of the Mongol Empire, Karakorum, was founded. Genghis Khan understood well that a state that was too large could not last long. By the way, the uprisings of the conquered peoples began during his lifetime, and for the last three years of his reign he rushed around the outskirts of his power, forcing the tributaries to submit. And his commanders continued reconnaissance raids to the west right up to the borders of the Russian principalities.

Death overtook the Great Khan during the siege of the Tangut capital Zhongxing in the early autumn of 1227. " Secret story“narrates that the garrison had already begun to surrender, and the ruler of the Tagnuts arrived at Genghis Khan’s headquarters with gifts. But the Great Khan suddenly felt unwell. Then he ordered the hostages to be killed, and the city to be taken and razed to the ground. After the order was carried out, Genghis Khan died.

INHERITANCE

After the death of Genghis Khan, his empire was inherited by his third son, Ogedei, who was appointed successor by Genghis Khan himself.

His relationship with his eldest son Jochi went wrong: he declared that Genghis Khan was “mad in his attitude towards people and lands,” and in every possible way delayed the campaign against the Circassians and Russian principalities.

In addition, over Jochi and his descendants all his life hung “ Merkit curse“- he was born immediately after his mother’s release from captivity, and therefore there were many doubts about Temujin’s paternity, although the khan himself recognized Jochi.

In 1225, Genghis Khan ordered an army to be sent against his eldest son, since he did not follow his father’s orders and did not appear at the council when Genghis Khan fell ill. Khan was informed that Jochi, who said he was ill, was actually hunting. However, the punitive campaign did not take place - Jochi actually died of illness.

The second son of Genghis Khan, Chagatai, was considered a very learned man for the Mongols and was known as the best expert on Yasa in the steppe. But he didn’t really like leading troops. As a result, Chagatai never formally took the khan's throne, but enjoyed authority and power even greater than Ogedei.

GENGISH KHAN'S GRAVE

The burial place of Genghis Khan remains one of the most curious historical mysteries.

The mausoleum in Ejen Khoro is just a memorial. The khan's body was transported to Mongolia, presumably to the place where he was born. According to customs, he should have been buried there. What happens next is shrouded in mystery. According to one version, a river mouth was built over the khan’s grave, and according to another, trees were planted. According to the third, the funeral escort, in order to hide the position of the grave, killed all the travelers they met. Then the slaves who dug the grave were killed, then the soldiers who killed the slaves, and so on. Medieval historians noted that a generation after the death of Genghis Khan, no one in Mongolia knew the true place of his burial. So, quite possibly, there is no secret: the Mongols did not accept noisy veneration of the graves of their ancestors.

LINE OF DESTINY OF GENGIGI KHAN

1155	Birth of Temujin.
1184	Temujin, together with his brother-in-arms Jamukha and Tooril Khan, defeated the Merkits. 1st victory of the future " Shaker of the Universe».
1186	Temuchin created his first ulus.
1205	Temujin united almost all the Mongol tribes and destroyed his last enemy - his twin brother Jamukha.
1206	At the kurultai, Temujin was proclaimed Genghis Khan (“ Great Khan") of all Mongol tribes. The conquest of Asia began.
1213	The beginning of the conquest of Northern China.
1218	Defeat of the Karakitai. The first clash between the Khorezmshahs.

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Conquests of Genghis Khan and his commanders

In 1207, hostilities began. The eldest son of Genghis, Jochi, conquered the “forest peoples” in one campaign, without encountering serious resistance. Southern Siberia- the remnants of the once mighty Kyrgyz Kaganate - which provided the rear for the Mongol ulus. The next year, 1208, the Mongol commander Subedei overtook and forced the Naimans and Merkits to battle in the Irtysh valley at the confluence of Bukhtarma. The Merkit leader Tokta fell in battle, his children fled to the Kipchaks (in modern Kazakhstan), and the Naiman prince Kuchluk with his fellow tribesmen went to Semirechye and was received there by Gurkhan Zhulhu, who needed warriors for the war with Khorezmshah Muhammad.

The year 1209 brought great grief to the Gurkhan. The small Kara-Chinese state was financed by Uighur merchants who asked Zhulchu Khan to deal with their Muslim competitors. Since the Gurkhan failed to complete the task received, the Uyghurs offered their submission to Genghis Khan. It was a deal that benefited both parties. The Mongol Khan was facing a war with the Jurchens. The whole Steppe demanded this from him.

Any war requires money. The Uighurs gave money. Uyghur merchants needed goods for trade. They could buy any amount of booty from the Mongol warriors, of course, cheaply, since they were a monopoly; In addition, the Mongols needed competent officials. Uighur literates immediately offered their services and received positions no less profitable than even trade deals. There was no longer any reason for China to delay the war, and in 1211 it began.

The Mongols struck the first blow against the Tangut kingdom. Most likely it was a military-political move. In 1209, the Mongols defeated the Tangut field troops and besieged the capital, but were forced to retreat, since the Tanguts, having destroyed the dams, flooded the surrounding area with the waters of the Yellow River. The Mongols retreated, concluding peace and a treaty of mutual military assistance, thereby freeing up their troops for the main campaign.

The moment for the outbreak of the inevitable war was chosen very deliberately. The Kin Empire was already waging a war on three fronts: with the Song Empire, the Tanguts and the popular movement of the “Red Caftans”. Despite the numerical superiority of the enemy, the Mongols won victories everywhere.

In the spring of 1211, the Mongols took the border fortress of Wu-sha. Soon several more fortresses fell, which the Jurchens hoped for as an insurmountable stronghold for the nomads, and the entire country, up to the gates of Luoyang, was devastated. The Khitan troops rebelled and handed themselves over to the Mongols, citing the fact that they were blood brothers. In 1215 Luoyang fell. It would seem that the whole country lay at the feet of Genghis Khan, but he unexpectedly concluded a truce.

He was distracted by urgent matters in the west: the Merkits, who retreated beyond the mountain passes of Altai and Tarbagatai in 1208, received help from the Kipchaks. Thanks to her, by 1216 they gathered their strength and tried to hit the Mongols in the rear. Only two tumens of selected Mongol troops, hastily transferred from Central Mongolia, under the command of the senior prince Jochi, saved the situation, stopped and pushed back the enemy. The Merkits, abandoned by the Naimans, were forced to take the battle and lost it. The remnants of the defeated Merkit army fled to the west, but were overtaken by the Mongols at the Irgiz River and exterminated to the last man. There, near Irgiz, the Mongols were attacked by Khorezmshah Muhammad. Surprised by the sudden, unprovoked attack, the Mongols, having endured a battle with enemy forces doubling their strength, retreated at night.

In 1218, the Naiman prince Kuchluk, having taken the ruler of Almalyk by surprise, who had surrendered under the protection of the Mongols, besieged the city, where the defense was led by the ruler’s wife, a Mongolian, the granddaughter of Genghis Khan. The Mongols immediately came to the rescue, and Kuchluk was forced to retreat. At the first news of the appearance of the Mongol army, the Muslim population began to beat up supporters of Kuchluk, who carried out the persecution of Islam. He fled to the north of the country to Sarykol, where, on the highest passes of the Tien Shan - “the roof of the world” - he was overtaken by the Mongols and killed.

The Mongolian temnik Jebe Noyon proclaimed complete freedom of religion for the local population and the Kara-Kitai (Khitans) submitted to the Mongols without resistance and were included in the people-army as a separate ten-thousandth corps, equal in rights with the Mongol units themselves.

Now, having pacified the neighboring peoples and prepared his army, Genghis Khan could strike at the more organized and wealthy powers. All I needed was a reason. And he was found:

The ruler of the Khorezm city of Otrar detained a trade caravan coming from Genghis Khan's headquarters and executed all the Mongols going with him, under the pretext that they were spies. The ruler took the goods for himself. Genghis Khan sent a demand to the Khorezmshah to hand over the city governor for reprisals. But Khorezmshah Muhammad, confident in his abilities, executed the ambassadors. This was the signal for the start of the war.

Genghis Khan began mobilizing all combat-ready clans. According to Arab sources, he had 150 thousand soldiers, according to the “Secret Legend” - 230 thousand, and several thousand Chinese engineers for the siege of cities.

In the autumn of 1219, with the onset of cold weather, the Mongol troops set out on a campaign. With a rapid march they passed the Dzhungar Gate gorge. They overcame steep passes and abysses (Chinese sources indicate that the front temnik Dzhagatai had to build at least 48 bridges to make the road suitable for army movement) and on the Arys River they divided into four corps: Dzhagatai and Ogedei moved to Otrar, Jochi turned north -west, to Jand. The third corps, numbering about 5 thousand soldiers, went to Banaket. The fourth corps, led by Genghis Khan himself and a force of up to 50 thousand, remained in the rear.

Genghis Khan’s ability to choose the moment to attack was reflected here: the Khorezmshah had about 400 thousand soldiers, but they were separated among fortresses; there was simply no single place to meet enemies in the Khorezm steppe. The Mongols ravaged all the surrounding cities. After a long continuous assault, Otrar was taken. As punishment for greed, the mayor's eyes and ears were filled with molten silver.

Meanwhile, Jochi took Sygnak, Ozkend, Eshnas and other cities on the northern bank of Yaxart (Syr Darya). In April 1220 he linked up with the fourth army.

The third corps, meanwhile, captured Benaket by deception. Then, after receiving reinforcements, they took Khojent.

The main army headed inland. Bukhara was plundered. After this, Genghis Khan went directly to Samarkand, where the main troops of the Khorezmshah were located.

But the Khorezmshah did not wait for the Mongols and left Samarkand. The Mongols forced Samarkand to surrender in a few days. The city was plundered. Two tumens were sent for the escaped Khorezmshah under the command of Jebe-noyon and Subedei-bagatur.

In the fall of 1220, Genghis Khan approached Termez with an army and took it by storm. Preparations for this assault were carried out methodically with the help of catapults, under the cover of whose shells the assault columns were brought to the fortress walls. The catapults were used to first fill the ditch with bags of earth. (In other cases, in the absence or lack of catapults, this dangerous operation was carried out by the hands of prisoners.)

Meanwhile, another army, under the command of three princes and Boorchu-noyon, was sent to capture the flourishing Khorezm (now Khiva) oasis, so as not to leave this base convenient for enemy enterprises on its flank. After a long siege, the city of Khorezm (Gurganj, now Urgench) was taken. During its siege, the Mongols, in order to flood the city, carried out enormous work to divert the Amu Darya to another channel.

Flooding failed, but geographic map the lower Amu Darya basin suffered changes that subsequently baffled geographers. The capture of Khorezm, like other cities that fell into the hands of the Mongols after strong resistance, was accompanied by terrible bloodshed.

During the siege of Khorezm, relations between the eldest sons of Genghis Khan - Jochi and Chagatai - became so strained that they threatened to turn into open struggle, of course, with extreme damage to the success of the task entrusted to them and to maintaining discipline in the troops of the siege corps. Having learned about this, Genghis Khan appointed his third son, Ogedei, as the chief commander of the siege, subordinating his older brothers to him, to the extreme displeasure of the latter. Nevertheless, Ogedei, who had great intelligence and subtle tact, managed to reconcile the brothers, calm their pride and restore discipline.

Genghis Khan spent the winter of 1220/21 in an area convenient for the army south of Samarkand.

New military actions began in the spring of 1221. Having crossed the Amu Darya, Genghis Khan occupied Balkh and approached Talkan; Prince Tuluy was sent to Khorasan to conquer this region.

At this time, news reached Genghis Khan that Jalal ad-Din was forming a new army in Ghazni (Afghanistan). Genghis Khan dispatched his sworn brother, the temnik Shigi-Kutuku, but he suffered defeat from his brave opponent near the city of Bamiyan, which was the first major failure of the Mongols in this war. Shigi-Kutuku with the remnants of his detachment returned to his master, who accepted the news of the defeat with complete calm, without expressing his displeasure to the defeated leader. On this occasion, he expressed only the following profound truth:

“Shigi-Kutuku knew only victories, so it is useful for him to experience the bitterness of defeat, in order to strive all the more ardently for victory in the future.”

Subsequently, driving with Shigi-Kutuku across the field of the unsuccessful battle for the Mongols and asking him about the details of the case, he pointed out to him an error in his orders, which boiled down to an incorrect assessment of the terrain, which was hummocky and interfered with the maneuvers of the cavalry in battle.

In his unsuccessful battle with Jalal ad-Din, Shigi-Kutuku was inferior to him in the number of troops by more than half (30 thousand versus 70).

The technique he used to mislead the enemy about the strength of his squad is interesting. He ordered to make stuffed animals out of straw, dress them in spare clothes and tie them in the form of riders on the backs of clockwork horses. The military leaders surrounding Jalal ad-Din almost succumbed to this deception and advised the young Sultan to retreat, but he did not heed this advice and won.

Genghis Khan, who during the unsuccessful operation of Shigi-Kutuku was bound by the siege of Talkan, soon after the Battle of Bamiyan captured a strong city and could himself with the main forces move against Jalal ad-Din; his rear was provided by Tuluy's detachment in Khorasan.

A decisive battle took place on the banks of the Indus in 1221, in which the Muslims, despite the miracles of courage shown by their leaders Timur-Melik and Jalal ad-Din, and their numerical superiority, suffered a heavy defeat, which completely broke their ability to resist.

Genghis Khan, who personally led the battle, at the decisive moment had to throw into the battle his selected “thousand bagaturs”, which decided the victory. Jalal ad-Din, who himself, with a group of surviving brave men, including the famous hero of Khojent - Timur-Malik, covered the withdrawal of his troops beyond the Indus, had no other choice but to throw himself into the river to swim across, which he succeeded in doing. Genghis Khan, who valued and respected valor even among his enemies, immediately pointed out to his sons the young Sultan as a model worthy of imitation

By this time, Khorasan was also finished, where Tului in a short time captured three enemy strongholds: Merv, Nishapur and Herat.

The victory over Jalal ad-Din on the Indus River essentially completed the conquest of the vast Central Asian Muslim empire of the Khorezmshah, and since Genghis Khan, always cautious in his military enterprises, understood perfectly well that in order to conquer India, where the Sultan had fled, When the time did not come, he could only return to Mongolia with most of the army after taking measures to secure the conquered territory. During this triumphant return to their homeland, some mountain fortresses of Northern Afghanistan that lay to the side were also conquered along the way. Genghis Khan spent the summer of 1222 with his army in cool places in the mountainous region of the Hindu Kush, the next winter he stood near Samarkand, and the spring of 1223 found him on the banks of the Chirchik River near Tashkent.

In the same year, a large kurultai of nobles and dignitaries of the empire took place on the banks of the Syr Darya. Subudei, who returned from the southern Russian steppes with his detachment, also arrived at the kurultai.

Bibliography

Walker S.S. Genghis Khan / Trans. from English A.I. Glebova-Bogomolov. Rostov n/d.: “Phoenix”, 1998, p. 108-109

Walker S.S., op.cit., p. 119

Gumilev L.N. In search of an imaginary kingdom. Trefoil mound. / http://gumilevica.kulichki.net