The ability of organisms to adapt to changing environmental conditions. Biological regression is a process opposite to biological progress
“Life activity of organisms” - Breathing. Metabolism and energy – characteristic feature alive. There are external and internal skeletons. Water. Only one sperm connects to the egg. At the heart of the work endocrine system lies the action chemical substances- hormones. Coordination and regulation. Cold-blooded. Growth and development of plants.
“Development of creativity” - Take your time to find the product of numbers. Provoking an error. Using "Math Hero". For example, form an irreducible fraction from the numbers 12, 42, 51 and 69. "Game with numbers." Contents: Magic square. The next two sections are not reflected in this presentation due to the regulations of the teachers' council.
“Human Organism” - Iron. Little is known about the processes in which silicon is involved in living systems. Copper. With age, the concentration of silicon in cells decreases. Fluorine. Nonmetals as trace elements. A significant portion of copper is in the form of ceruloplasmin. When taken orally, selenium is concentrated in the liver and kidneys. Silicon is needed for the growth and development of the skeleton.
“Development of intellectual abilities” - Opportunity further development project: Presence of a problem: Mobilizing stage of the lesson. Get acquainted with music and theater ... ... The emergence of public theaters. Inclusion of students in educational process from the first minute of the lesson. Look at the scattered letters. Formation of knowledge and skills in the subject. Development of the most important intellectual qualities through exercises.
“Individual development of an organism” - Embryology data is used to reconstruct the course of phylogenesis. The first sperm fuses with the egg to form a zygote, from which the embryo develops. Internal fertilization. Crushing stage. Blastula stage. Gastrula and neurula stages. The teacher answers students' questions. Give definitions. A – gastrula B – blastula C – neurula D – organogenesis.
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Activities of living organisms. Main abiotic and biotic factors. Forms of interaction between living organisms. Classification of environmental factors by degree of adaptability. Factors of inanimate nature. Classification by degree of constancy.
Adaptation. The visible ability of the body to adapt to the external environment and lifestyle. The process of achieving such compliance.
Analog. Cm. Digital.
Brownian motion . Constant zigzag and unpredictable movement of particles under the influence of molecular impacts.
Genetics. In the strict sense of the word, genetics is a science that studies all aspects of heredity and variability of organisms, as well as the processes of growth and differentiation occurring within them.
Genotype. A set of recipes and instructions that represent a hereditary contribution to the determination of the phenotype (see Dictionary).
Flexibility. Cm. Stress.
Homology. Formal similarity between two organisms in which the relationship between certain parts of A is similar to the relationship between corresponding parts of B. Such formal similarity is considered evidence of an evolutionary relationship.
Idea. In the epistemology proposed in this book, smallest element intelligent process is a difference, a distinction, or a communication of a difference. What is called idea in everyday speech, is apparently a complex set of such elements. But in everyday speech it is unlikely to be called idea bilateral symmetry of the frog or a signal from a separate nerve impulse.
Information. Any difference that matters.
Cybernetics. Branch of mathematics dealing with problems of control, recursiveness and information.
Coevolution. A stochastic system of evolutionary change in which two or more species interact with each other in such a way that changes of type A create the conditions for natural selection changes in the form B. Subsequent changes in the form B, in turn, create conditions for further selection of the corresponding changes in the form A.
Linear. In a mathematical sense linear(linear) is a technical concept that expresses a relationship between variables that is represented by a straight line on a graph in rectangular Cartesian coordinates. In a cybernetic sense linear(lineal) means a relationship between a series of causes or arguments such that the sequence never returns to its starting point. The opposite of mathematical linearity is nonlinearity. The opposite of cybernetic linearity is recursiveness.
Boolean types. Here are some examples:
1. A name is not an object that is called by that name. It refers to someone else boolean type, higher than the one to which this object itself belongs.
2. The class belongs to a different, higher logical type than the members of this class.
3. The instructions or control emanating from the home thermostat control setting are of a higher logical type than the control provided by the thermometer associated with the thermostat. (A regulator is a device on the wall that is adjusted so that it determines the limits within which the temperature in the room will fluctuate.)
4.Word Tumbleweed is of the same logical type as bush And tree. It is not the name of a plant species or genus; is the name of a class of plants, all members of which have a specific pattern of growth and seed dispersal.
5. Acceleration belongs to a higher logical type than speed.
Mutation. According to traditional evolutionary theory, offspring may differ from their parents as a result of:
1.Changes in DNA called mutations.
2. Recombination of genes during sexual reproduction.
3. Somatic changes that have occurred during the life of the organism as a result of external pressure, habits, age and other factors.
4. Somatic segregation, that is, the loss or rearrangement of genes during epigenesis, leading to the fact that some parts of the body’s tissues acquire a different genetic structure. Genetic changes always have a discrete (see Dictionary) character, but in modern theory preference is given (for good reasons) to the view that evolution in general consists of small changes. It is assumed that many small mutational changes, cumulative over many generations, lead to larger evolutionary divergences.
Negentropy. Cm. Entropy.
Ontogenesis. The process of development of an individual organism; embryology plus any changes imposed by changes in external conditions and habits.
Parallax. Visibility movement of the observed object, which occurs when the observer's eye moves relative to this object; the difference between the apparent positions of an object when perceived by one or the other eye.
Prochronism. A general pattern contained in the shapes of organisms that indicates their previous growth. Prochronism relates to ontogeny in the same way as homology (see Glossary) relates to phylogeny.
Reductionism. The goal of every scientist is to find the simplest, most parsimonious, and (usually) most elegant explanation of known data. But reductionism becomes harmful if it is carried out by overly insisting that the simplest explanation is the only one. It may be that the data need to be understood within a broader gestalt.
Accident. The sequence of events is called random, if there is no way to predict the next event of this sequence based on previous events, and if the system obeys the laws of probability. Please note that the events we call random, always belong to some limited set. If you toss a coin fairly, the result is called random. With each toss, the probability that the next toss will be heads or tails does not change. But randomness exists within a limited set. Either heads or tails; other possibilities are not considered.
Somatic. (From Greek soma- body). ABOUT somatic the origin of a certain property is said in cases where they want to emphasize that this property arose as a result of bodily changes that appeared during the life of the organism under the influence of external influences or the organism’s own behavior.
Stochastic.(From Greek stochazein- shoot at a target with a bow; that is, to distribute events somewhat randomly, but sometimes with some preferred outcome). If in a sequence of events the element of chance is combined with selectivity, so that only certain outcomes are possible, then such a sequence is called stochastic.
Stress. Lack of entropy, a condition that occurs when the external environment or internal disease places excessive or conflicting demands on the body's ability to adapt. The body doesn't have enough flexibility, which he needs, since he has already used up all the possibilities available to him.
Tautology. A set of statements related to each other, in which the truth connections between the statements is beyond doubt. The truth of these statements themselves is not asserted. Example: Euclidean geometry.
Sacrament. External visible manifestation of internal and spiritual grace.
Taxon. A unit or group used in the classification of animals and plants (for example, species, genus, family).
Topology. A branch of mathematics that does not consider quantitative quantities and deals only with formal relationships between components, especially those that can be represented geometrically. Topology deals with properties (for example, the surface of a body) that are preserved under quantitative distortions.
Phenocopy. A phenotype (see Glossary) having some common features with other phenotypes in which these traits are caused by genetic factors. IN phenocopies these traits appear as a result of somatic changes under environmental pressure.
Phenotype. A set of sentences that make up a description of a real organism; appearance and features of a real organism. Cm. Genotype.
Phylogenesis. History of the evolution of the species.
Digital. The signal is called digital, if it is abruptly separated from other signals from which it must be distinguished. Examples of digital signals - Yes And No. The signal is called analog, when its strength or intensity is used to represent a continuously changing quantity.
Eidetic. Mental image called eidetic, if it has all the properties of a perceived object, especially if it belongs to a sense organ and therefore appears to come from without.
Energy. In this book the word energy I use to mean quantities, having the dimension of mass multiplied by the square of speed ( MV 2 ). Other people, even physicists, use the word in many other ways.
Entropy. The degree of confusion, disorder, undifferentiation, unpredictability and randomness (see Dictionary) in the relationships between the components of a certain aggregate. Entropy with the opposite sign is called negentropy and expresses the degree of order, differentiation and predictability in a certain aggregate. In physics, some types of order are related to the amount of energy available.
Epigenesis. The process of embryology, considered as related at each stage to status quo ante*.
Epistemology. A section of science, and at the same time a section of philosophy. As a science, epistemology is the study of processes cognition, thinking And decision making individual organisms or their aggregates. As a philosophy, epistemology is the study of the inevitable limitations and other features of the processes of cognition, thinking, and decision-making.
Adaptation– this is the adaptation of the organism to environmental conditions due to a complex of morphological, physiological, and behavioral characteristics.
Different organisms adapt to different conditions environment, and as a result moisture-loving hydrophytes and "dry-bearers" - xerophytes(Fig. 6); plants of saline soils – halophytes; shade tolerant plants ( sciophytes), and requiring full sunlight for normal development ( heliophytes); animals that live in deserts, steppes, forests or swamps are nocturnal or diurnal. Groups of species with a similar relationship to environmental conditions (that is, living in the same ecotopes) are called environmental groups.
The ability of plants and animals to adapt to unfavorable conditions differs. Due to the fact that animals are mobile, their adaptations are more diverse than those of plants. Animals can:
- avoid unfavorable conditions(birds fly away to warmer regions due to lack of food and cold in winter, deer and other ungulates wander in search of food, etc.);
– fall into suspended animation – a temporary state in which life processes are so slow that their visible manifestations are almost completely absent (numbness of insects, hibernation of vertebrates, etc.);
– adapt to life in unfavorable conditions (they are saved from frost by their fur and subcutaneous fat, desert animals have adaptations for economical use of water and cooling, etc.). (Fig. 7).
Plants are inactive and lead an attached lifestyle. Therefore, only the last two adaptation options are possible for them. Thus, plants are characterized by a decrease in the intensity of vital processes during unfavorable periods: they shed their leaves, overwinter in the form of dormant organs buried in the soil - bulbs, rhizomes, tubers, and remain in the state of seeds and spores in the soil. In bryophytes, the entire plant has the ability to undergo anabiosis, which can survive for several years in a dry state.
Plant resistance to unfavorable factors increases due to special physiological mechanisms: changes in osmotic pressure in cells, regulation of the intensity of evaporation using stomata, the use of “filter” membranes for selective absorption of substances, etc.
Adaptations develop at different rates in different organisms. They arise most quickly in insects, which in 10–20 generations can adapt to the action of a new insecticide, which explains the failure of chemical control of the density of insect pest populations. The process of developing adaptations in plants or birds occurs slowly, over centuries.
Observed changes in the behavior of organisms are usually associated with hidden characteristics that they had, as it were, “in reserve,” but under the influence of new factors they emerged and increased the stability of the species. Such hidden characteristics explain the resistance of some tree species to industrial pollution (poplar, larch, willow) and some weed species to herbicides.
The same ecological group often includes organisms that are not similar to each other. This is due to the fact that to the same environmental factor different types organisms can adapt in different ways.
For example, they experience the cold differently warm-blooded(they are called endothermic, from the Greek words endon - inside and terme - heat) and cold-blooded (ectothermic, from the Greek ektos - outside) organisms. (Fig. 8.)
The body temperature of endothermic organisms does not depend on temperature environment and is always more or less constant, its fluctuations do not exceed 2–4 o even in the most severe frosts and the most intense heat. These animals (birds and mammals) maintain body temperature by internal heat generation based on intensive metabolism. They retain their body heat through warm “coats” made of feathers, wool, etc.
Physiological and morphological adaptations are complemented by adaptive behavior (choosing sheltered places to spend the night, building burrows and nests, group overnight stays with rodents, close groups of penguins keeping each other warm, etc.). If the ambient temperature is very high, then endothermic organisms are cooled due to special devices, for example, by evaporation of moisture from the surface of the mucous membranes of the oral cavity and upper respiratory tract. (For this reason, in hot weather, the dog’s breathing quickens and he sticks out his tongue.)
The body temperature and mobility of ectothermic animals depends on the ambient temperature. In cool weather, insects and lizards become lethargic and inactive. Many species of animals have the ability to select a place with favorable conditions of temperature, humidity and lighting sunlight(lizards bask on illuminated rock slabs).
However, absolute ectothermism is observed only in very small organisms. Most cold-blooded organisms are still capable of weak regulation of body temperature. For example, in actively flying insects - butterflies, bumblebees, body temperature is maintained at 36–40 o C even at air temperatures below 10 o C.
Similarly, species of one ecological group in plants differ in their appearance. They can also adapt to the same environmental conditions different ways. Thus, different types of xerophytes save water in different ways: some have thick cell membranes, others have pubescence or a waxy coating on the leaves. Some xerophytes (for example, from the family Lamiaceae) emit vapors of essential oils that envelop them like a “blanket”, which reduces evaporation. The root system of some xerophytes is powerful, goes into the soil to a depth of several meters and reaches the groundwater level (camel thorn), while others have a superficial but highly branched one, which allows them to collect precipitation water.
Among the xerophytes there are shrubs with very small hard leaves that can be shed in the driest time of the year (caragana shrub in the steppe, desert shrubs), turf grasses with narrow leaves (feather grass, fescue), succulents(from the Latin succulentus - succulent). Succulents have succulent leaves or stems that store water and are easily tolerated. high temperatures air. Succulents include American cacti and saxaul, which grows in Central Asian deserts. They have a special type of photosynthesis: the stomata open briefly and only at night; during these cool hours, plants store carbon dioxide, and during the day they use it for photosynthesis with closed stomata. (Fig. 9.)
A variety of adaptations to surviving unfavorable conditions on saline soils is also observed in halophytes. Among them there are plants that are capable of accumulating salts in their bodies (saltweed, swede, sarsazan), secreting excess salts onto the surface of the leaves with special glands (kermek, tamarix), “not allowing” salts into their tissues due to the “root barrier” impermeable to salts "(wormwood). In the latter case, the plants have to be content with a small amount of water and they have the appearance of xerophytes.
For this reason, one should not be surprised that in the same conditions there are plants and animals that are dissimilar to each other, which have adapted to these conditions in different ways.
1. What is adaptation?
2. How can animals and plants adapt to unfavorable environmental conditions?
2. Give examples of ecological groups of plants and animals.
3. Tell us about different devices organisms to experience the same unfavorable environmental conditions.
4. What is the difference between adaptations to low temperatures in endothermic and ectothermic animals?