General biology 

Inside the space station. International Space Station (ISS)

The atmospheric optical phenomenon the belt of Venus can be observed by people anywhere globe. But prerequisite for this phenomenon there is a clear sky without clouds at the horizon level, both from the side of the Sun and from the opposite side.

An optical phenomenon such as the belt of Venus appears a few minutes before sunrise or immediately after sunset.

At a time when the Sun is located in close proximity to the horizon, on the opposite side of the horizon the atmosphere scatters its reflections. If you pay attention, at this moment the Sun looks almost red, it is because of this that the color of the surrounding sky takes on a pinkish or orange tint. Most often, the phenomenon attracts attention in random photographs, because... under normal conditions, everyone is already accustomed to it, and the duration of the optical phenomenon is insignificant.

Variants of the origin of the term “belt of Venus”

No one gives clear explanations about the origin of the name of the phenomenon “belt of Venus”, but still some astrologers and historians express their assumptions about this.

Some researchers argue that the name is a tribute to the beauty of the phenomenon. The “Belt of Venus” in mythology is a symbol of attractiveness, so this option was chosen for poetic and aesthetic reasons.

There is also a deeper explanation of the term. In the Middle Ages there was a metal structure called the “belt of Venus.” It was worn on women's hips, locked with a key, and was considered a symbol of fidelity, chastity, and restriction of their freedoms. This is how he separates earthly burdens from heavenly freedom and infinity.

The least romantic and most plausible version explains the origin of the term as follows: all year round, at sunset, you can see the planet Venus not far from the horizon. It is pinkish in color and is only visible for a short period of time. Therefore, the belt, which usually appears at the same time, was named after the planet Venus, as a tribute to its nearest neighbor.

All experts and ordinary observers agree on one thing - the phenomenon of the belt of Venus is a very beautiful sight and one might even say magical.
How many people - so many opinions. The main thing is that the magnificent colors of the phenomenon attract the attention of photographers, artists and romantics around the world.

Recently I came across this interesting term: “The Belt of Venus.” For some reason I immediately began to associate him with mythology. However, after rummaging through our favorite global network, I found out that this is actually an atmospheric phenomenon. It turns out that quite often you all have probably seen it without noticing it. People don't see what's in front of their noses, do they?

It appears during sunset or dawn only in a clear, cloudless sky above the horizon. I could not find the history of the term. But I have a guess. Throughout the year, our neighboring planet Venus is visible in the sky not far from the horizon. By the way, in October it burns especially brightly. Naturally, it is visible not all night, but only during twilight at sunset. And the belt of Venus is observed at the same time of day at approximately the same height from the horizon as Venus itself. That's all. Quite logical, it seems to me.

What does he look like, you ask? It represents a stripe of color between the dark night sky above and below. The color of the stripe, by the way, varies over a very wide range. It can be any color of the rainbow. But, most often it is observed in pink. At the same time, it is very clearly visible in the direction diametrically opposite to the position of the Sun in this moment. That is, at sunset it is clearly visible in the east, and at sunrise, naturally, in the west. With the description, everything seems to be there.

Why this color? Everything is very simple. To understand everything, it’s enough to remember a little about some laws of physics. In particular, the laws of optics. Any schoolchild who has completed this section of physics knows why our sky is red at sunset. And here is the same situation. When our Sun sets or rises, we see its rays through a very thick layer of the atmosphere. Usually when we look at the Sun, we see dazzlingly White color. But any schoolchild knows that white color has the most complex composition, since it is a mixture of all colors. As colors pass through our thick layer of atmosphere, they are greatly scattered. So, depending on which light is scattered more, the medium receives this color. This determines the wide range of colors of the belt of Venus. But more often than not, it still comes in all sorts of shades of pink, because this color diffuses best in the atmosphere. The worst is green, so the green belt of Venus is a very rare occurrence.

Palmistry will be given great importance not only the main lines on the palm, but also looks closely at other signs. A Venus ring on your hand can say a lot. This is the line that can be seen under the middle and ring fingers. Look at the photo where it is usually located.

The Ring of Venus has a lot to say

Sometimes this line is whole, clear, and has a strict semicircular shape. This is what is called the ring of Venus.

But often in this very place you can see not one, but several broken lines located under each other. If there is not one line, but several of them, and they are not so clearly defined, somewhat similar to debris, they are called the belt of Venus. This is clearly visible in the photo

The Belt of Venus is a sign of a nervous nature

Most often, this belt of Venus can be found on an elegant hand with thin fingers. On a square hand, a spade-shaped, plump palm, you will not be able to see this sign.

Previously, the belt of Venus was considered a sign of promiscuity, but modern people, experts in the science of palmistry have long recognized that this is rather a sign of a nervous nature. If this is a regular semicircle, then it indicates a sensitive nature.

What does the presence of a Venus belt on the hand mean?

What does palmistry say about the belt of Venus, what does this sign on the palm mean? Let's look at all the main qualities of such a person point by point.

Good character traits

Here is a person endowed with artistic abilities, very creative and interesting.

  • Such people can perceive other people's pain as their own. We often see this sign on the hand of those who care for others.
  • A person who has a clearly visible belt of Venus on his arm is very impressionable. Even good film or sad music can move him to tears. Sometimes you get the feeling that he is different by nature, more balanced and strict. In fact, his soul is very soft, it doesn’t want things easily, but it craves understanding and love.
  • If you see this sign in the palm of a writer, then you have a romantic in front of you. If this line is absent on the hand of an artist or musician, then his work will not excite the hearts, even if they have achieved technical perfection, because they may be emotionally undeveloped.
  • These are people with a rich and lively imagination, striving for spiritual knowledge.

People can understand other people's pain

Character traits that may not make you happy

But there are also not very good features, characteristic of people, in which the belt of Venus is clearly visible.

  • They are sensual and emotional in nature, which sometimes makes life difficult for them. Here is a person with an unrestrained character, overly emotional, even hysterical.
  • If this line is visible on the palm, then its owner may have low self-esteem, be very vulnerable.
  • A person does not know how to resist offenders, often blaming only himself for everything, even if he is offended or humiliated. Directing his anger only against himself, he suffers greatly in his soul.
  • Despite the fact that the owner of the Venus belt does not fight back, he reacts very sharply to all insults and neglect towards him, even if they exist only in his imagination. He does not forget insults for a long time and does not forgive them. If you have lost the trust of this person, you may not even know it, he will not show it outwardly, but he will not love you.
  • People who have these lines clearly visible on their palms are not always ready to put up with reality, and can become discouraged if something doesn’t work out for them.
  • The famous Desbarolles, for whom palmistry is his native element, said that the belt of Venus on both hands is a sign of irritability and extreme hysteria.
  • This line is on the hands of those who love luxury and sensual excesses.

Combination with other lines

Palmistry, deciphering the meaning of the lines on the palm, never judges a person by individual fragments. The combination of all signs is very important.

International space station- result collaboration specialists in a number of fields from sixteen countries (Russia, USA, Canada, Japan, states that are members of the European Community). The grandiose project, which in 2013 celebrated the fifteenth anniversary of the start of its implementation, embodies all the achievements of modern technical thought. An impressive part of the material about near and deep space and some earthly phenomena and the processes of scientists are provided precisely by the international space station. The ISS, however, was not built in one day; its creation was preceded by almost thirty years of cosmonautics history.

How it all began

The predecessors of the ISS were Soviet technicians and engineers. The undeniable primacy in their creation was occupied by Soviet technicians and engineers. Work on the Almaz project began at the end of 1964. Scientists were working on a manned orbital station that could carry 2-3 astronauts. It was assumed that Almaz would serve for two years and during this time it would be used for research. According to the project, the main part of the complex was the OPS - an orbital manned station. It housed the work areas of the crew members, as well as a living compartment. The OPS was equipped with two hatches for exiting open space and dropping special capsules with information, as well as a passive docking unit, to Earth.

The efficiency of a station is largely determined by its energy reserves. The Almaz developers have found a way to increase them many times over. The delivery of astronauts and various cargo to the station was carried out by transport supply ships (TSS). They, among other things, were equipped with an active docking system, a powerful energy resource, and an excellent motion control system. TKS was able to supply the station with energy for a long time, as well as control the entire complex. All subsequent similar projects, including the international space station, were created using the same method of saving OPS resources.

First

Competition with the United States forced Soviet scientists and engineers to work as quickly as possible, so as soon as possible Another orbital station was created - Salyut. She was delivered into space in April 1971. The basis of the station is the so-called working compartment, which includes two cylinders, small and large. Inside the smaller diameter there was a control center, sleeping places and areas for rest, storage and eating. The larger cylinder is a container for scientific equipment, simulators, without which not a single such flight can be completed, and there was also a shower cabin and a toilet isolated from the rest of the room.

Each subsequent Salyut was somewhat different from the previous one: it was equipped with the latest equipment and had design features that corresponded to the development of technology and knowledge of that time. These orbital stations marked the beginning new era research of space and terrestrial processes. "Salyuts" were the base on which a large amount of research was carried out in the field of medicine, physics, industry and Agriculture. It is difficult to overestimate the experience of using the orbital station, which was successfully applied during the operation of the next manned complex.

"World"

It was a long process of accumulating experience and knowledge, the result of which was the international space station. "Mir" - a modular manned complex - is its next stage. The so-called block principle of creating a station was tested on it, when for some time the main part of it increases its technical and research power due to the addition of new modules. It will subsequently be “borrowed” by the international space station. “Mir” became an example of our country’s technical and engineering excellence and actually provided it with one of the leading roles in the creation of the ISS.

Work on the construction of the station began in 1979, and it was delivered into orbit on February 20, 1986. Throughout the existence of the Mir, various studies were carried out on it. The necessary equipment was delivered as part of additional modules. The Mir station allowed scientists, engineers and researchers to gain invaluable experience in using such a scale. In addition, it has become a place of peaceful international interaction: in 1992, an Agreement on Cooperation in Space was signed between Russia and the United States. It actually began to be implemented in 1995, when the American Shuttle set off for the Mir station.

End of flight

The Mir station has become the site of a wide variety of research. Here, data in the field of biology and astrophysics were analyzed, clarified and discovered, space technology and medicine, geophysics and biotechnology.

The station ended its existence in 2001. The reason for the decision to flood it was the development of energy resources, as well as some accidents. Various versions of saving the object were put forward, but they were not accepted, and in March 2001 the Mir station was immersed in the waters. Pacific Ocean.

Creation of an international space station: preparatory stage

The idea of ​​​​creating the ISS arose at a time when the thought of sinking the Mir had not yet occurred to anyone. The indirect reason for the emergence of the station was the political and financial crisis in our country and economic problems in the USA. Both powers realized their inability to cope with the task of creating an orbital station alone. In the early nineties, a cooperation agreement was signed, one of the points of which was the international space station. The ISS as a project united not only Russia and the United States, but also, as already noted, fourteen other countries. Simultaneously with the identification of participants, the approval of the ISS project took place: the station will consist of two integrated blocks, American and Russian, and will be equipped in orbit in a modular manner similar to Mir.

"Zarya"

The first international space station began its existence in orbit in 1998. On November 20, the Russian-made Zarya functional cargo block was launched using a Proton rocket. It became the first segment of the ISS. Structurally, it was similar to some of the modules of the Mir station. It is interesting that the American side proposed building the ISS directly in orbit, and only the experience of their Russian colleagues and the example of Mir inclined them towards the modular method.

Inside, "Zarya" is equipped with various instruments and equipment, docking, power supply, and control. An impressive piece of equipment, including fuel tanks, radiators, cameras and panels solar panels, are located on the outside of the module. All external elements are protected from meteorites by special screens.

Module by module

On December 5, 1998, the shuttle Endeavor headed for Zarya with the American docking module Unity. Two days later, Unity was docked with Zarya. Next, the international space station “acquired” the Zvezda service module, the production of which was also carried out in Russia. Zvezda was a modernized base unit of the Mir station.

The docking of the new module took place on July 26, 2000. From that moment on, Zvezda took over control of the ISS, as well as all life support systems, and the permanent presence of a team of astronauts at the station became possible.

Transition to manned mode

The first crew of the International Space Station was delivered by the Soyuz TM-31 spacecraft on November 2, 2000. It included V. Shepherd, the expedition commander, Yu. Gidzenko, the pilot, and the flight engineer. From this moment it began new stage operation of the station: it switched to manned mode.

The composition of the second expedition: James Voss and Susan Helms. She relieved her first crew in early March 2001.

and earthly phenomena

The International Space Station is a place where various tasks are carried out. The task of each crew is, among other things, to collect data on certain space processes, study the properties of certain substances under conditions of weightlessness, and so on. Scientific research carried out on the ISS can be presented as a general list:

  • observation of various distant space objects;
  • cosmic ray research;
  • Earth observation, including the study of atmospheric phenomena;
  • study of the characteristics of physical and biological processes under weightless conditions;
  • testing new materials and technologies in outer space;
  • medical research, including the creation of new drugs, testing diagnostic methods in conditions of weightlessness;
  • production of semiconductor materials.

Future

Like any other object that is subjected to such a heavy load and is so intensively operated, the ISS will sooner or later cease to function at the required level. It was initially assumed that its “shelf life” would end in 2016, that is, the station was given only 15 years. However, already from the first months of its operation, assumptions began to be made that this period was somewhat underestimated. Today there are hopes that the international space station will be operational until 2020. Then, probably, the same fate awaits it as the Mir station: the ISS will be sunk in the waters of the Pacific Ocean.

Today, the international space station, photos of which are presented in the article, continues to successfully circle in orbit around our planet. From time to time in the media you can find references to new research carried out on board the station. The ISS is also the only object of space tourism: at the end of 2012 alone, it was visited by eight amateur astronauts.

It can be assumed that this type of entertainment will only gain momentum, since the Earth from space is a fascinating view. And no photograph can compare with the opportunity to contemplate such beauty from the window of the international space station.

2:09 27/03/2018

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At the beginning of the 20th century, space pioneers such as Hermann Oberth, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, Hermann Nordung and Wernher von Braun dreamed of vast orbiting . These scientists suggested that space stations were starting points for exploration outer space.

Wernher von Braun, American architect space program, integrated space stations into his long-term vision space research in USA. To accompany von Braun's numerous space articles in popular magazines, artists drew concepts of space stations. These articles and drawings helped capture public imagination and interest in space exploration, which was essential to the creation of the US space program.

In these space station concepts, people lived and worked in space. Most stations were wheel-shaped structures that rotated to provide artificial power. Like any port, ships went to and from the station. The ship carried cargo, passengers and supplies from Earth. The departing ships went to Earth, and beyond. As you know, this general concept is no longer just the vision of scientists, artists and science fiction writers. But what steps have been taken to create such orbital structures? Although humanity has not yet realized the full visions of scientists, there have been significant advances in the construction of space stations.

Since 1971, the United States and Russia have had orbiting space stations. The first space stations were the Russian Salyut program, the US Skylab program and the Russian World program. And since 1998, the USA, Russia, the European Space Agency, Canada, Japan and other countries have been building and operating near-Earth spacecraft. On the ISS, people have been living and working in space for more than 10 years.

In this article, we will look at early space station programs, the use of space stations, and the future role of space stations in space exploration. But first, let's take a closer look at why we should build space stations.

Why should we build space stations?

There are many reasons to build and operate space stations, including research, industry, exploration, and even tourism. The first space stations were built to study the long-term effects of weightlessness on the human body. After all, if astronauts ever want to go to Mars or others, then we need to know how long-term microgravity for months and years will affect their health.

Space stations are a place for cutting-edge scientific research in conditions that cannot be created on Earth. For example, gravity changes the way atoms combine into crystals. In microgravity conditions, almost perfect crystals can form. Such crystals could yield better semiconductors for faster computers or for creating effective drugs. Another effect of gravity is that it creates convection currents in the flame, resulting in unsteady processes that make combustion difficult to study. However, microgravity produces a simple, steady, slow flame; these types of flames make it easier to study the combustion process. The information obtained can provide a better understanding of the combustion process and lead to improved furnace designs or reductions in air pollution by increasing combustion efficiency.

From high above the Earth, space stations offer unique views to study the weather, Earth's topography, vegetation, oceans and. Additionally, since space stations are above the Earth's atmosphere, they can be used as manned observatories where space telescopes can look at the heavens. The Earth's atmosphere does not interfere with the views of space telescopes. In fact, we have already seen the benefits of unmanned space telescopes such as .

Space stations can be used as space hotels. Here, private companies can ferry tourists from Earth to space for short visits or long stays. Even greater expansions of tourism are that space stations could become space ports for expeditions to planets and stars, or even new cities and colonies that could liberate an overpopulated planet.

Now that you know why we need this, let's visit some space stations. And let's start with Russian program"Salyut" - the first space station.

Salyut: the first space station

Russia (then known as the Soviet Union) was the first to host a space station. The Salyut 1 station, launched into orbit in 1971, was actually a combination of the Almaz and Soyuz spacecraft systems. The Almaz system was originally intended for space military purposes, but was converted for the civilian space station Salyut. Spaceship The Soyuz transported astronauts from Earth to the space station and back.

Salyut 1 was about 15 meters long and consisted of three main compartments, which housed dining and recreation areas, food and water storage, a toilet, control stations, simulators and scientific equipment. The crew was originally supposed to live aboard Salyut 1, but their mission was plagued by docking problems that prevented them from entering the space station. The Soyuz 11 team was the first team to successfully survive Salyut 1, which they did for 24 days. However, the Soyuz 11 crew tragically died after returning to Earth when the Soyuz 11 capsule depressurized during reentry. Further missions to Salyut 1 were canceled and the Soyuz spacecraft was redesigned.

After Soyuz 11, another space station, Salyut 2, was launched, but it failed to enter orbit, followed by Salyut 3-5. These flights tested the new Soyuz spacecraft and the crews manning these stations for longer missions. One of the disadvantages of these space stations was that they only had one docking port for the Soyuz spacecraft and could not be re-docked with other spacecraft.

On September 29, 1977, the Soviets launched Salyut 6. This station had a second docking port where the station could be replaced. Salyut 6 operated from 1977 to 1982. In 1982, the last of the Salyut programs started. It carried 11 crews and was occupied for 800 days. The Salyut program eventually led to the development of the Russian Mir space station, which we'll talk about a little later. But first, let's look at America's first space station: Skylab.

Skylab: America's first space station

In 1973, the United States placed its first and only space station, called Skylab 1, in orbit. During launch, the station was damaged. A critical meteoroid shield and one of the station's two main solar panels were torn off, and the other solar panel was not fully extended. This meant that Skylab had little electrical power and the internal temperature rose to 52 degrees Celsius.

The first crew of Skylab 2 launched 10 days later to fix the ailing station. The astronauts pulled out the remaining solar panel and installed an umbrella sunshade to cool the station. After the station was repaired, the astronauts spent 28 days in space conducting scientific and biomedical research. The modified Skylab had the following parts: orbital workshop - living and working quarters for the crew; gateway module – access to the outside of the station is allowed; multiple docking adapters – allows multiple spacecraft dock with the station immediately (however, there were never overlapping crews at the station); telescopes for observing , and (keep in mind that this has not yet been built); Apollo is a command and service module for transporting crew to the surface of the Earth and back. Skylab was equipped with two additional crews.

Skylab was never intended to be a permanent home in space, but rather a place where the United States could experience the effects of long-duration spaceflight (that is, more than the two weeks required to go to the Moon) on the human body when the third crew's flight was completed. Skylab was abandoned. Skylab remained aloft until intense solar flare activity caused its orbit to be disrupted earlier than expected. Skylab entered the Earth's atmosphere and burned up over Australia in 1979.

Mir: the first permanent space station

In 1986, the Russians launched a space station that was intended to become a permanent home in space. The first crew, cosmonauts Leonid Kizima and Vladimir Solovyov, stormed between the retired Salyut 7 and Mir. They spent 75 days aboard Mir. The world was continually completed and built over the next 10 years and contained the following parts:

– Living quarters – there are separate cabins for the crew, a toilet, a shower, a kitchen and a garbage storage;

– Transport compartment – ​​where additional stations can be connected;

– Intermediate compartment – ​​a working module connected to the rear docking ports;

– Assembly compartment – ​​fuel tanks and rocket engines are located;

– Astrophysics module Kvant-1 – contained telescopes for studying galaxies, quasars and neutron stars;

– Scientific and aviation module Kvant-2 – provided equipment for biological research, Earth observation and capabilities space flight;

– Technological module “Crystal” – used for experiments on biological and material processing; contained a docking port that could be used with the US Space Shuttle;

– Spectrum module – used for research and monitoring natural resources Earth and Earth's atmosphere, and to support experiments in biological and materials science research;

– Nature Remote Sensing Module – contained radars and spectrometers for studying the Earth’s atmosphere;

– Docking module – contained ports for future dockings;

– Supply Ship - an unmanned supply ship that brought new products and equipment from Earth and removed waste from the station;

– The Soyuz spacecraft provided the main transport to and from the surface of the Earth.

In 1994, in preparation for the International Space Station (ISS), NASA astronauts (including Norm Tagara, Shannon Lucid, Jerry Lianger and Michael Foale) spent time aboard Mir. During Linier's stay, the World was damaged by fire. During Foel's stay, the Progress ship crashed into Mir.

The Russian space agency could no longer afford to maintain Mir, so NASA and the Russian space agency planned to retire the station to focus on the ISS. On November 16, 2000, the Russian Space Agency decided to return Mir to Earth. In February 2001, the Mir was turned off to slow down its movement. The world re-entered Earth's atmosphere on March 23, 2001, burned and disintegrated. The debris crashed in the South Pacific Ocean about 1,667 km east of Australia. This meant the end of the first permanent space station.

International Space Station (ISS)

In 1984, President Ronald Reagan proposed that the United States, in cooperation with other countries, build a permanently inhabited space station. Reagan envisioned a station that would support government and industry. To help with the huge costs of the station, the US has created a joint effort with 14 other countries (Canada, Japan, Brazil and the European Space Agency, which includes: UK, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Spain, Switzerland and Sweden). During ISS planning and after the breakup Soviet Union The United States invited Russia to cooperate on the ISS in 1993; this brought the number of participating countries to 16. NASA took the lead in coordinating the construction of the ISS.

Assembly of the ISS in orbit began in 1998. On October 31, 2000, the first ISS crew was launched from Russia. The three-person team spent nearly five months aboard the ISS, activating systems and conducting experiments.

Speaking of the future, let's take a look at what the future might hold for space stations.

The future of space stations

We are just beginning the development of space stations. The ISS will be a significant improvement over Salyut, Skylab and Mir; but we are still far from realizing large space stations or colonies, as science fiction authors suggest. Until now, none of our space stations have had any seriousness. One reason for this is that we want a place without gravity so we can study its effects. Another is that we lack the technology to practically rotate a large structure, such as a space station, to create artificial gravity. In the future, artificial gravity will be a requirement for space colonies with large populations.

Another popular idea concerns the location of the space station. The ISS will require periodic reuse due to its position in low Earth orbit. However, there are two places between the Earth and the Moon, called Lagrange points L-4 and L-5. At these points, the Earth's gravity and the Moon's gravity are balanced, so an object placed there will not be pulled towards the Earth or the Moon. The orbit would be stable and would not require adjustment. As we learn more about our experiences on the ISS, we can build bigger and better space stations that will allow us to live and work in space, and the dreams of Tsiolkovsky and the early space scientists may one day become a reality.

The Tiangong-1 station weighs 8.5 tons. Its length is 12 m, diameter 3.3 m. It was launched into orbit in 2011. Almost three years later, control of the station was lost. Central Florida University professor Roger Handberg suggested that the orbit correction engines had used up all their fuel.

Debris from the Chinese space station Tiangong-1, which is leaving orbit, may fall in several areas. European countries. This was reported by The Hill, citing experts from the California Aerospace Corporation. “Most likely, they will crash into the ocean, but scientists nevertheless warned Spain, Portugal, France and Greece that some debris could fall within their borders,”–– writes The Hill.