Losses and distortions of the transmitted information depend on. Causes of distortion and loss of information
In the process of communication, various techniques can be used to successfully deceive the interlocutor.
Let's look at how information distortion can occur. We note three possibilities: information distortion can occur due to the fault of the transmitting information, receiving information (self-deception) and the transmission channel.
Distortion of information by the transmitting party
Ability to deceive idiosyncrasy person. It can range from complete sincerity to incorrigible deceit. It is easier to deceive a person if he already has some kind of preliminary installation. Let us recall, for example, Gorodnichiy in N. V. Gogol's "Inspector General". While waiting for the arrival of the auditor, he was internally ready for his appearance, he himself created his image. Khlestakov only took advantage of the already prepared situation.
Information distortion by the transmission channel
There is a problem of polysemy of words, their different interpretation depending on intonation, punctuation, context or associations that people have for the same words. For example: execution cannot be pardoned. Depending on where you put a comma or pause, the meaning of the information can change dramatically. This is often associated with misunderstanding. Great importance also has a message context.
Distortion of information by the receiving party
"Deceived - make a mistake in your assessments, feelings, expectations." Self-deception often plays the role of psychological protection. When a person feels that others are deceiving him, he resists it with all his might, but it is impossible to determine the moment when delusion and self-deception penetrate into his own brain. As a result, a person is captured by illusions: political, racial, ideological or any other. Then they become part of the mind, and it is no longer possible to remove them from there painlessly. With self-deception, a person believes everything that fits into the mentally created model of the situation, and discards, i.e. does not notice everything that is not consistent with his ideas. Strong emotions contribute to this, as they blind a person and do not adequately assess the situation. An example is Othello blinded by jealousy. In order to create a false model of the surrounding reality in a person, there are many ways to manipulate the available information.
Consider the basic methods of information distortion. Well-known researchers of deception issues, such as P. Ekman, Yu. Shcherbatykh, R. Garifullin, describe the following forms of information distortion.
Information flow manipulation
There are many ways to manipulate information to create a false model of the surrounding reality in a person.
Default (hiding)- the transmission of incomplete true information, as a result of which the victim makes a mistake. A person withholds some part of the information. He does not cheat in the full sense of the word. He just does not finish something, he is silent about something. All his words are true. Only here the reality itself is described in part. Something very important and significant is being overlooked. There is one subtlety here: most people think that silence and lies are different things. That is why, if there is a choice - how to lie, people more often prefer not to say something, to remain silent, rather than openly distort the facts. And one more trick: concealment has a lot of advantages compared to outright falsification.
The most important thing is that you do not need to invent anything. Therefore, there is no risk of getting caught because the whole "legend" is not worked out in advance. It is easier to hide than to manipulate the facts. And later, if such a deception is discovered, it will be easy to justify it: they say, I didn’t know, I wanted to say about it later, I forgot ... But you never know what else you can think of when a false word is not said. In such situations one does not go too far. Speaking of your forgetfulness, you do not need to memorize the entire legend. It is only necessary to remember that you supposedly have a bad memory. However, memory loss can only be invoked when we are talking about insignificant or allegedly insignificant, from the point of view of the deceiver, things, or about an event that happened a long time ago. Otherwise, no one will believe you.
Selection- selective pass to the victim only information beneficial to the deceiver.
In competition with a business partner, it is sometimes much easier to hide some information from him than to tell the truth and then dispute it in a debate.
Juggling- a way of presenting information when attention is drawn only to those facts that are beneficial to the source of information. There is not even a mention of negative facts for him. This also includes the creation of an appropriate design, when the question is presented from a certain angle. Let us recall one of the television advertising campaigns, when the property of the product, which is its disadvantage, was presented by the authors of the advertisement as its undoubted advantage.
Distortion is to change proportions. It can be a clear understatement of something important, or, conversely, an exaggeration of an insignificant one. A typical example of this technique is reports from battlefields. The American psychologist F. Butler proposed a simple variant of outwardly objective bilateral argumentation: he advised bringing the strongest, most convincing arguments in favor of "one's" position, and the weakest ones in favor of the "other" side. So you can show the failure of any opponent, any theory. You can also compare obviously unequal categories. Non-specialists won't even notice it. In the garden - elderberry, and in Kiev - uncle. It's just about this technique.
flipping- swapping, replacing "black" with "white". Let us recall what the Polish writer-humorist SE Lets wrote about this: "Never change the truth! Change the truth!" One example of this can be the substitution of goals: when your interest is presented as the interest of another person. Consider, for example, how Tom Sawyer painted the fence ("Painting the fence is cool").
Disorientation- frankly "chattering" the issue. Anything is reported, but not in essence. The interlocutor is given a lot of information that has nothing to do with the topic under discussion. This distracts him from the essence of the case at hand. That is why it is so important in negotiations to "keep your goal". Disorientations such as flattery and slander are widely used by various political leaders.
half truth- mixing outright lies and reliable information; one-sided coverage of facts; inaccurate and vague wording of the provisions under discussion; links to sources with a disclaimer like: "I don't remember who said..."; distortion of a reliable statement with the help of value judgments; etc. The method of half-truth is most often used when it is necessary to get away from an undesirable turn of the dispute, when there are no reliable arguments, but it is imperative to challenge the opponent, when it is necessary, contrary to common sense, to persuade someone to a certain conclusion. The truth is told, but only partially.
Planting false evidence- it is known that people trust the ideas that arise in their own heads much more than those thoughts that come from another person. Therefore, experienced deceivers always try to avoid direct pressure on their victims, preferring indirect, unobtrusive influence.
How can I do that? For example, to present facts to the victim in such a way that they lead him to a certain conclusion that the forger needs. Conclusions based on planted facts are made by the victim completely independently. In this case, it is very important that an important principle be observed: evidence should be planted seemingly by chance, indirectly, only then they do not arouse suspicion. The conclusion follows from this: having received evidence of someone's guilt, think about whether there are people for whom such a development of events is favorable. Perhaps this information came to you not by chance. There are countless examples of this: the events that Lermontov described in his drama "Masquerade", as well as Iago, who gradually, step by step, fueled Othello's jealousy.
Creation of "non-existent reality"- with the help of small, but expressive details, a corner of false space will be created around the victim, which should give the words and actions of the scammers a special persuasiveness. This technique was widely used by the infamous fraudulent pyramids ("MMM", "Lord", etc.). They had chic offices, respectable security, i.e. everything that so clearly testifies to the reliability and solidity of the company.
Disguise- represents an attempt to hide something important information with the help of the insignificant. There are four main masking options:
- an essential lie an inessential lie;
- essential truth by non-essential lies;
- an essential lie an inessential truth;
- essential truth with non-essential truth.
false conclusion- Another trick to avoid uttering a lie. It consists in allowing the interlocutor to draw a conclusion from what was said himself, but at the same time leading him to ensure that this conclusion is false.
False interpretation- a person is told a lot, a lot of truth, which is easy to verify, and a drop of lies. In the stream of true facts, false information easily slips through.
At the logical level, this is the ability to introduce into consciousness some false premises based on a large number of reliable and easily verifiable true judgments.
For their implementation, they use such techniques as reporting a large amount of true information, among which only a small part is false. Because of this, detecting deception is quite difficult - like finding a needle in a haystack. For example, many motorists encounter this technique at car service stations. Very often, with the necessary repair of a particular unit, "repair masters" even do what is not needed. At the same time, the cost of work increases significantly.
Context change. A case from life is given, which was in reality, but is transferred to a different context. This makes it possible to store in memory many small details related to this occasion which will create the illusion of truthfulness of the story. There is no need to compose and specifically remember something. For example, you and a friend went to barbecue in the forest, and your wife was told that you were repairing a car in the garage of the same friend. You really repaired the car, only a week ago. When you get home, you describe to your wife your whole day when you really worked on the car by the sweat of your brow. There are many small details in your story that you don’t even need to invent, but only remember. The illusion of the veracity of the story is complete!
The effect of deceived expectation lies in the fact that the person they want to deceive is given some information, taking into account which the potential victim predicts further development events in the most likely direction. The deceiver, on the other hand, acts differently, thereby violating the expectations of the victim. The purpose of his message was to direct the interlocutor's thinking along the path of updating the most frequently encountered familiar situations. Thus, the deceived himself is always, as it were, an unwitting accomplice in the deception: he is the victim of his own inadequate ideas about reality. Also, deceivers can use true information, provoking the interlocutor to draw erroneous conclusions from it.
Deception "from the contrary." The wolf caught the hare. And the hare asks him: "Do whatever you want with me, even eat me, just don't throw me into the thorn bush." “If he is so afraid of this,” the wolf thought, “then I will throw him there.” So the smart hare deceived the stupid wolf.
Telling the truth under the guise of deceit is a related method. It is necessary to tell the truth, but with overexposure, so that the victim does not believe her, i.e. telling the truth lies. Otto von Bismarck said: "If you want to fool the world, tell him the truth." Deceit with the truth is a rare form of swindle. It works very well because people usually don't expect that kind of arrogance. However, you must either be able to control yourself well, or be a good actor.
False Explanation- a person may not hide his feelings, especially if he fails to do this, but lie about their reason. By truthfully recognizing the emotion experienced, he misleads as to the cause of its occurrence. For example, you are discussing your boss, and at this time he enters the room. You are confused. However, this embarrassment can be explained by anything.
They deceive those who want to be deceived."We do not deceive anyone so cleverly as we deceive ourselves," these are the words of Schopenhauer. And it really is! In many cases, the victim of the deception misses the mistakes of the person distorting the information, giving his ambiguous behavior the most favorable interpretation. This is done in order to avoid the terrible consequences that exposure may entail. Often, the victim both wins and loses from false information or exposure, but these results are not necessarily balanced.
Deception by permutation- in this option, the potential victim is simply forced to try on the role of a deceiver. As a result of various psychological manipulations, it begins to seem to the victim that he is already deceiving others, he gets excited. Real scammers, up to a certain point, diligently maintain this illusion. And only in the final everything falls into place. As La Rochefoucauld wrote, "The best way to be deceived is to consider yourself more cunning than others."
Falsification (fraud)- transmission of deliberately false information on the merits of the issue under consideration. This may include perjury, false statements and denials, fabrication of facts, documents, reference to non-existent sources, etc.
Usually, falsification is resorted to when silence alone is not enough. In this case, the person is already taking the next step: he not only withholds true information, but also presents false information as true. The real state of affairs is hidden, deliberately false information is conveyed to the partner.
Often, when distorting information, various tricks are used. Let's consider some of them.
lure- represents the creation, demonstration of the bait with which the fraudster seduces the victim. Such bait is some kind of reward, such as political support, which makes the victim want to make contact with him.
Stroking- represents various techniques that create a sense of success, happiness, well-being in the victim, starting with approving facial expressions and gestures and ending with exaggerated respect and courtesy. Often the scammer seeks to create in the victim a feeling of disappointment, uncertainty, a sense of need. He imposes his ideas about reality on a potential victim, based on her stereotypical expectations. Such expectations can be of two types: logical and psychological.
nudge- Another simple and affordable trick to perform. If a person hesitates between several strategies of behavior, then with skillful actions and words he can be pushed in the right direction. It is only necessary to create conditions for the emergence of incorrect ideas in the mind of another person, to give impetus to the movement of thoughts in the right direction, while remaining aloof, as it were. The rest is up to the victim. A person is so arranged that he has a rich imagination and fantasy, he is inclined to embellish, exaggerate what he wants to receive. Give, for example, an impetus to a jealous person - he will think of the rest himself, and even convince himself of the truth and veracity of his conjectures. Examples? Othello in Shakespeare, Arbenin in Lermontov's drama "Masquerade" - both killed their innocent wives on only one suspicion of treason. Another mechanism is based on the fact that people look for the basis of their behavior in the behavior of others. And since they are rarely motivated by the desire to deceive, it is difficult for a person to admit that the purpose of the interlocutor is deception.
Often used and psychological mechanism, how sense of community by mentioning mutual acquaintances, place of birth, education, etc. Such mentions create a feeling of closeness with the fraudster, reduce distrust and suspicion, thereby making it easier to deceive the victim.
These and other methods of distorting information make it possible to successfully implement deception. Lies are multifaceted, and that is why it is so difficult to expose them.
At the subconscious level, signs of information distortion, its untruth, are read by any, even the most unprepared person. Questions arise: why does he not allow these signs into consciousness, interprets them in such a way as to be deceived? What psychological motives push people to be deceived? The answers to these questions will allow people to better understand themselves and each other.
In any of the cases listed above, some aspect of behavior may betray the person's intention not to tell the truth, it is only important to notice this sign or group of signs in time in order to take appropriate countermeasures. How to do this, we will consider further.
So as we see psychological tricks distortions of information are quite diverse. Perhaps one of the key points in the analysis - whether the interlocutor's message is true or not, is to determine his motives.
Think about it: is there any reason or any interest in this particular person to keep silent about any facts or to change them altogether? No wonder the police in solving crimes always ask the question: who benefits from this? If you are going to conclude some kind of trade deal with a partner, it may be worth reading the text of the agreement more carefully, especially what is written in it small print. And it is even better to write the text yourself so that there are no misunderstandings.
- Ozhegov S. I., Shvedova N. 10. Dictionary Russian language. M.: Az, 1992.
- Cm.: Garifullin R. R. Illusionism of personality as a new philosophical and psychological concept. Kazan: Book and Co., 1997.
Manipulations with the information flow - there are many ways to manipulate information to create a false model of the surrounding reality in a person. We will consider some of these techniques separately.
Silence (concealment) is the transmission of incomplete true information, as a result, the victim makes a mistake. A person hides some information, while not saying anything that does not correspond to reality. Not everyone believes that silence and lies are the same thing, therefore, if there is a choice of how to lie, people more often prefer to remain silent about something, not to speak, rather than openly distort the facts. Hiding has many benefits. First, it is easier to hide than to manipulate the facts. Nothing needs to be invented. There is no risk of getting caught because the whole "legend" is not worked out in advance. Concealment is also preferable because it is passive and seems less reprehensible than falsification. It can also be much easier to cover up later if it is exposed. Man does not go too far. There are many excuses: ignorance, wanting to talk about it later, bad memory, etc. By simulating a memory gap, the misrepresenting person avoids having to remember the "legend": all that needs to be remembered is the bad memory claim. But memory loss can only be invoked if it is about minor things or about something that happened some time ago, otherwise it will be implausible.
Selection is a selective pass to the victim of only information that is beneficial to the deceiver.
In competition with a business partner, it is also much easier to hide information from him than to dispute it in polemics. The ability to competently hide something from your opponent is the most important component of the art of diplomacy. The professionalism of the polemist lies in skillfully moving away from the truth without resorting to outright lies.
Distortion is a way of presenting information, when attention is drawn only to the facts that are most beneficial for the source of information, it is a conscious underlining of only one side of the phenomenon that is beneficial to the deceiver. This also includes the creation of an appropriate design that presents the issue from a certain angle.
Distortion is an understatement, exaggeration, or out of proportion. A typical example of the distortion of the proportions of the transmitted information is a report from the battlefield. The American psychologist F. Butler proposed a simple variant of outwardly objective bilateral argumentation: he advised bringing the strongest, most convincing arguments in favor of "one's" position, and the weakest ones in favor of the "other" side. So you can show the failure of any opponent. You can also compare obviously unequal categories. Non-experts won't even notice.
Flipping - swapping, replacing "black" with "white". Another Polish writer-humorist E. Lec wrote: "Never change the truth! Change the truth!" This can be a substitution of goals: when your interest is presented as the interest of another person. Remember how Tom Sawyer painted the fence ("Painting the fence is cool").
Falsification (rigging) is the transfer of deliberately false information on the merits of the issue under consideration. This may be perjury, false statements and denials, fabrication of facts, documents, etc. (1)
It has to be resorted to when one default is not enough. When falsifying, a person takes the next step: not only withholds true information, but also presents false information as true. The real state of affairs is hidden and deliberately false information is conveyed to the partner, which can be presented in the form of false documents, references to non-existent sources, experiments, etc.
In some cases, an untrue message from the very beginning requires manipulation, hiding alone is not enough. For example, if you need to distort information about previous work experience in order to get a good place when applying for a job. It is necessary not only to hide inexperience, but also to come up with a suitable work biography. Fraud is also inevitable if one wants to disguise what a person needs to hide. This is especially necessary when it comes to hiding emotions. It is easy to hide an already experienced emotion, and much more difficult this moment especially if it's a strong feeling. Horror is harder to hide than anxiety, rage - than irritation.
Most often, a person fails because some sign of a hidden emotion leaks out. How stronger emotion, the more likely it is that some sign of her will leak out, despite all attempts to hide it. The imitation of another, non-experienced emotion can help mask the hidden experience. By falsifying emotion, one can cover up the leakage of signs of a secret experience. It is much easier to put on a mask, slow down or extinguish by a number of other actions those that express the emotion experienced. When the hands begin to tremble, it is much easier to do something with them - clench into fists or squeeze them - than to make them lie still. The best mask is a false emotion. Most often, a smile is used as a mask. It is the opposite of all negative emotions: fear, anger, suffering, disgust, etc. Another reason for the popularity of the smile as a mask is that it is the easiest of all facial expressions to voluntarily reproduce. It's harder for most people to fake negative emotions. But not every situation allows you to mask the experienced emotion. In some cases, a much more difficult task needs to be solved: how to hide an emotion without falsifying another.
False explanation - a person may also not hide his feelings, especially if he fails to do this, but lie about their reason. By truthfully recognizing the emotion experienced, he misleads as to the cause of its occurrence.
Disorientation is the transmission of irrelevant true or false information in order to distract from the essence of the issue at hand. Anything is reported, but not about the essence of the matter. Such types of disorientation as flattery and slander are widely used. This technique is especially widely used by political leaders.
A half-truth is a mixture of significant true information with significant false information, a mixture of lies and reliable information; one-sided coverage of facts; inaccurate and vague wording of the provisions under discussion; references to sources with a disclaimer like: "I don't remember who said..."; distortion of a reliable statement with the help of value judgments, etc. The method of "half-truth" is most often used when it is necessary to get away from an undesirable turn of the dispute, when there are no reliable arguments, but it is imperative to challenge the opponent, when it is necessary, contrary to common sense, to persuade someone to a certain conclusion. The truth is told, but only partially.
Throwing False Evidence - People are known to trust ideas that are in their own minds much more than those that come from another person. Therefore, experienced deceivers always try to avoid direct pressure on the victim, preferring an indirect, unobtrusive effect on his way of thinking. To do this, they seemingly accidentally throw him certain information, the conclusions of which he must draw himself. With a competent presentation of certain facts, a person himself must draw exactly the conclusions that the deceiver is counting on. At the same time, it is important that the principle is observed: evidence should be planted seemingly by chance, indirectly, only then they do not arouse suspicion. This suggests the conclusion: having received evidence of someone's guilt, think about whether there are people for whom such a development of events is favorable. It is possible that this information came to you not by chance.
Creation of "non-existent reality" - with the help of small, but expressive details, a corner of false space is created around the victim, which should give the words and actions of the scammers a special persuasiveness.
Masking (2) - represents an attempt to hide some essential information with the help of some non-essential information. There are four main masking options:
Disguising essential lies with non-essential lies.
Disguise of essential truth with non-essential lies.
Disguising an essential lie with a non-essential truth.
Masking Essential Truth with Non-Essential Truth.
False conclusion is another trick to avoid speaking lies. It consists in allowing the interlocutor to draw a conclusion from what was said himself, but at the same time lead him to ensure that this conclusion is false.
False interpretation - at the logical level, it is associated with the ability to introduce some false premises into consciousness. To implement them, they use such techniques as the "presumption of normality": the message of a large number of true and verifiable judgments, among which only one judgment is false. Because of this, it is rather difficult to detect an untrue judgment.
Change of context - a case from life is given, which was in reality. But this case is transferred to another context. This makes it possible to retain in memory many small details related to this case, which creates the illusion of the veracity of the story. There is no need to compose and specifically remember something.
False expectation effect: successful misrepresentation is based on it. The person who is deceived, given the truthful information received, predicts the development of events in the most probable direction, and the person who distorts the information acts in a way that violates his expectations. The purpose of the false message is to direct the interlocutor's thinking along the path of actualization of frequently encountered familiar situations. The deceived is always an unwitting accomplice of deception: he is a victim of his own inadequate ideas about reality. Also, deceivers can use true information, provoking the interlocutor to erroneous conclusions from it.
Deception "from the contrary" - the wolf caught the hare. And the hare asks him: "Do whatever you want with me, even eat me, just don't throw me into the thorn bush." “If he is so afraid of this,” the wolf thought, “then I will throw him there.” So the smart hare deceived the stupid wolf.
Telling the truth under the guise of deceit is another related method - telling the truth, but with overexposure, so that the victim does not believe it, i.e. telling the truth lies. Otto von Bismarck said: "If you want to fool the world, tell him the truth." Deceit with the truth is a rare form of swindle. It works very well. The main thing is that people, as a rule, do not expect such impudence. True, here it is necessary either to be able to control oneself well, or to be a good artist.
They deceive those who want to be deceived. In many cases, the victim of the deception misses the mistakes of the misrepresenter, giving his ambiguous behavior the most favorable interpretation. This is done to avoid the dire consequences that exposure may entail. Often the victim both wins and loses from false information or exposure, but these results are not necessarily balanced.
Deception by rearrangement - when a potential victim is forced to try on the role of a deceiver. As a result of various psychological manipulations, it begins to seem to the victim that he is deceiving others, while real scammers diligently maintain this illusion up to a certain point. And only in the final everything falls into place.
In any case, the key point in the analysis is true given message or not, is the definition of the subject's motives, the establishment of the reasons why he considers it necessary to remain silent about certain facts known to him.
Perhaps one of the most important points in understanding a person by a person and recognizing a possible deception on his part is the definition of his motives. Think about whether there is any reason or any interest for this particular person to keep silent about any facts or to change them altogether. No wonder the police in solving crimes always ask the question: who benefits from this? If you are going to conclude some kind of trade deal with a partner, it may be worth reading the text of the agreement more carefully, especially what is written in it in small print. And it is even better to write the text yourself so that there are no misunderstandings.
6.2. Communication Barriers and Distortion of Information
Communication barriers are obstacles that interfere with the implementation of contacts and interaction between the communicator and the recipient. They prevent adequate reception, understanding and assimilation of messages in the process of implementing communication links.
At the present stage of development of society, it is necessary to apply a systematic approach to the formation and study of communication models, including consideration of the information process in a social context.
These are interferences that interfere with the implementation of contacts between the communicator and the recipient. Barriers arise both in the technical system and in the mechanism of communication.
Communication barriers can be classified according to the nature of the interference:
1. Technical interference. The source of what kind of interference is the communication channel itself (fax, telephone) when there are obstacles to the passing signal in the communication channel. Interference can completely block the communication channel or partially, distorting information or truncating it.
2. Psychological interference is associated with the relationship between the communicator and the recipient, their attitudes towards the information channel, the methods, content and form of the message.
3. Psychophysiological disturbances arise due to sensory abilities, features of human perception, the ability of the human brain to memorize and process information.
4. Social interference is expressed in the belonging of communicants to different social groups, they are due to social norms, prohibitions, restrictions in obtaining information.
5. Cultural and national reasons. Features in interethnic communications are due to differences in traditions, norms, values, assessment of various forms of communication, reactions to the information received.
The purpose of the study of communication barriers by sociologists is to find out the causes of occurrence and ways of influencing the effectiveness of information links in social systems. Psychologists consider communication barriers from the point of view of the psychology of communication, differences in the psychological perception of information.
In various models of communication, in addition to the above-mentioned barriers, their own, specific, narrow-profile ones may arise, and the noted communication barriers can also be combined.
The presence or absence of barriers in communication channels is checked by comparing the information at the input and output of this channel. This information cannot always be verified. The presence of feedback in the communication system makes it possible to carry out such a check. In technical communication networks, special devices, blocks are installed that make such comparisons and look for distorted information.
Obstacles to the flow of information create serious problems in communicative relations. Obstacles can arise at the stage of receiving, and at the stage of transmission, and at the stage of receiving information. Or otherwise, those people (or systems) that have information that needs to be transferred to someone are not able to communicate it to the addressee; those who have to organize the transfer of information may also, for one reason or another, be deprived of the opportunity to do so; and those who need to receive the information may also be unable to receive and/or assimilate it.
Most often in interpersonal communications there are language barriers. Difficulties in the use of the language arise even if both sides have a fairly good command of the same language. If one side begins to understand that the communication partner does not understand specific terms, then he replaces them with understandable ones, and in further communication he will try to avoid them. Official speech is very different from everyday speech. The military speaks using strictly defined terms that are understood unambiguously. If, however, the philosopher is offered to speak the same language as the military, then be sure that the essence of philosophy can also be emasculated. In a word, stylistic barriers associated with a mismatch between the styles of communicants or content and style in some cases can lead to a complete misunderstanding of the parties involved in linguistic communication. An interesting example in this regard is given by R. Fischer and W. Urey: “At a meeting of practitioners - construction and road foremen - the result of scientific development is reported - a new jackhammer. After a deeply scientific report, the listener asked the question: “Does the hammer shake much?” The scientist-developer did not understand the question. A more experienced representative of science translated the question into understandable scientific language: “To what extent does one of the most important characteristics of the installation - the vibration constant - correspond to the conditions of use, which excludes the negative impact of the vibration factor on the performer?” The scientist-rapporteur understood and answered: “As a result of the experiments, it was possible to find out that the frequency amplitude of the root-mean-square error of the deviation of the working surface from the imaginary geometric axis coincides with the mathematical expectation of the result, so there is reason to believe that this correspondence really takes place.” Now the practitioner understood "from the construction site." The translator explained: You can work with a hammer.
Many semantic problems (recognizing the meaning of words) disappear if, when entering into communication (oral or written), it is necessary to interpret the least used words and terms that have a double meaning. The correct definition of the properties of sign systems (semiotics) also enables specialists to understand each other and avoid abracadabra even using fairly complex sign constructions.
Semantic barriers arise due to giving the wrong meaning to the symbols used in communications (words, pictures, actions), i.e., they are caused by a mismatch of codes used by the parties of communication. From several possible values, the communicator needs to choose one in such a way that it is unambiguously perceived by the recipient. Many problems arise in the implementation of communication between representatives of different cultures. In this case, both parties do not always know well the meanings of all the words and expressions used by the parties, all the more so they do not always adequately interpret them in the context of use, taking into account intonation, loudness, pauses, and accompanying non-verbal gestures. “Whenever we interpret a symbol based on our assumptions rather than facts, we are making inferences that are an essential part of communication. Usually we have no way to avoid them, since the work of consciousness cannot stop, waiting for the message to be received in full and accepted. Because inferences can give the wrong signal, we should always be aware of this and be very careful about them. If in doubt, additional information is needed.”
Abracadabra is created for two reasons. The first is from the inability to use words correctly, the misunderstanding of the meanings of at least some of them, as well as the inability to construct sign systems, to confuse grammatical and logical rules during their formation. Secondly, abracadabra can be the result of the transfer of outdated and very specific formulations into the language environment, as well as extreme zeal for the maximum accuracy of formulations, in which any omission or any mistake brings the verbal-semantic construction to the point of absurdity.
V. A. Spivak cites such a case. The court dealt with the case of grievous bodily harm. What happened: a graduate came to work at the construction site high school, a boy from an intelligent family who had no idea about the specifics of such work. He was placed as an assistant to an experienced worker. It was necessary to straighten the rack at the balcony railing. The worker gave an assistant a sledgehammer, he himself forged a rack with a crowbar and ordered: “Hit on the rib! About other ribs, except for the ribs of a person and, perhaps, an animal, the young assistant had no idea. Not understanding the meaning, he literally took the order and “unintentionally inflicted grievous bodily harm on the worker - with a sledgehammer in the ribs.
Such almost implausible cases of manifestation of a semantic problem, however, quite often take place in practice. The author of this book, speaking on a long-distance telephone with a young graduate student-part-time student, in order to shorten the conversation, using a short professional slang, asked him to bring a "fish" and promised to discuss the problems under study with him. When the unlucky student appeared, to my question: “Did you bring fish?” he began to take dried fish out of the bag. It was then that I realized that he did not understand me and he did not have any preliminary version of the dissertation (“fish”).
One of the communication barriers in linguistic consideration is associated with the rejection of "dead" (not living) artificial languages, because A "living" language - colloquial - is not only a sign system, but also a reflection of belonging to a particular nation, ethnic, social group.
Written texts differ significantly from oral texts. If in oral speech the interlocutor can ask again, clarify an incomprehensible word, then when receiving a written message, this is almost impossible to do. Despite the existing shortcomings of remote communications carried out with the help of texts, nevertheless, modern civilization without written communications. impossible to imagine. In more detail, the rules for the application of semiotics and semantics are considered by us in the section “Communication as a communicative process”.
The process of information exchange can be disturbed for subjective reasons (turn of mind, psychological characteristics of perception, etc.). Biased attitude to certain information often leads to the exclusion from the text of the message of information that is unpleasant for the participant in communication. The result of this attitude to information, for example, was the defeat of the Allies in the Ardennes in December 1944. This happened precisely due to the bias towards information received by the intelligence service more than low level, whose data were ignored by higher-level intelligence, since they already had an opinion on this matter. Similar obstacles may arise from the avoidance of contact by one of the partners.
Disturbances in the process of information exchange can also occur due to the so-called "specialization effect". A group of "narrow" specialists, as a rule, applies the least number of actions in relation to the information received, most often interprets it from the point of view of its approximation to the usual form, and is the least willing to violate the prevailing ideas. They decipher and use the information within the means at their disposal.
Obstacles in the exchange of information also occur due to the different status of workers. Information in such communications is filtered both when passing from bottom to top and from top to bottom. When passing information from the bottom up, often the lower ones have a desire to gain respect from the higher leaders and for this reason they embellish the information. They often tell the manager what they want to hear. Senior leaders perceive a respectful, polite attitude towards them as a real attitude towards them, although often this expresses only the ratio of positions by status. One has only to remove the leader from his post, as the attitude of the majority of former subordinates towards him will change. One of the main reasons for ignoring the information coming from the bottom up is the immaturity and ambition of the management staff. Many leaders enjoy their right not to listen or not to listen to the opinions of subordinates.
The presence of a status barrier in communications has also positive sides. The status protects the leader from the possible waste of time due to the implementation of ineffective, duplicative, insignificant communications that can be implemented at a lower level.
Phonetic barriers - arise at the perceptual level (from lat. Perceptio - "perception") and significative - to have the ability to distinguish between higher, meaningful units - elements of the language: morphemes, words, sentences (from lat. significate - "to designate"). The perceptive (to be an object of perception) factor can serve as a communication barrier due to the indistinguishability of sounds, poor pronunciation, rejection of the pace of speech, and the significative factor - due to a misunderstanding of the meaning indicated by words, morphemes, sentences
Any obstacles to the promotion of information through the communication channel disrupt the communication system. Therefore, in such a system, a mechanism for systematic diagnostics of the state of the system should be provided. In particular, it should provide for the possibility of determining the location of barriers at an early stage. This will allow minimizing losses from disruptions in its operation. In particular, functional disorders of the communication system may occur due to a decrease in the bandwidth of communication channels, delaying the passage of information. The most dangerous is the complete “blockage” of even one communication channel, when the flow of information through this channel in both directions stops.
In these cases, it is necessary to bypass the broken communication channel, "laying" a channel parallel to the broken section. In this case, it is not at all necessary to replace the broken channel (or section) with an identical one. Suppose an agent of a company traveled to a region that is difficult to access and poorly provided with means of communication to clarify a number of details and with a positive outcome of the signing of the contract. The mobile phone, which at the moment was the only means of communication with the head of the company (communication channel), is out of order, i.e. the channel is blocked. As a temporary shunt to the main communication channel, the agent used a telegram, and a little later, when he managed to find access to e-mail, i.e., installed a more effective shunt. The communication shunt, unlike the parallel communication channel, is used temporarily for the period of failure of the main communication channel.
Distortion of information is quite a frequent phenomenon in communication systems. Distortion appears in such transmission of information when its meaning is distorted. The loss of information is accompanied by the failure to receive the entire message or part of it.
It is known that even the usual current remarks of the minister, the general director are retold by subordinates, interpreted in their own way, sometimes the meaning of what was said is completely distorted. The more stages of information transfer, the greater the likelihood of information distortion.
The author of these lines repeatedly demonstrated to the audience a scheme for distorting information when it is transmitted through 2-5 steps. Even when retelling the test, half a page in size, when passing it from mouth to mouth through 5 steps, the content of the text was distorted beyond recognition. When trying to convey the content of 3-4 drawings placed on one page, already at the second stage we encountered obstacles caused by the subjective interpretation of the drawings. At the same time, students often paid attention to insignificant details, missing the main thing. For example, girls noticed elements of jewelry, while missing the most important participants in communication depicted in the picture. The young men noticed the configurations of women's bodies, or elements demonstrating male strength, while not noticing at all the elements of the landscape surrounding people. Moreover, the detailing of descriptions focused on any element fully corresponded to their interests, tastes, needs, but in no case was justified by the expediency of focusing on the main elements of information that the teacher paid attention to.
So, information is most distorted when it is transmitted through a large number of steps and over long distances. However, the latter circumstance does not in any way concern the distances instantly overcome by technical means. Technical means helped to overcome the geographical distance and thus bring the subjects of communications closer. This has strengthened the ability to control the flow of information through communication channels.
However, the implementation of communications through technical means deprives the participants of communications of the effect of "live communication". The telephone, although to some extent an analogue of direct communication, does not make it possible to feel the shades of "live speech", facial expressions, and gestures. Even video-interactive two-way communication does not make it possible to completely replace direct public communication. Even if the face of the interlocutor, hand gestures are visible on the monitor screen, nevertheless, there is no feeling of full contact, which makes it possible, in addition to the indicated elements, to feel the so-called fluids (a kind of bioenergy field emitted by a person). Here is how E. Leim describes these obstacles to technical communication systems: “Obstacles to the free exchange of thoughts are quite difficult to overcome in the same city, building or even room. They become even more difficult to overcome as the distance between headquarters and field offices increases. In the same environment - geographical, social and professional - the general environment sometimes gives many clues to such an understanding that even exact words could not express. Such an element is absent when transmitting information over a distance!.
Written communication creates even more obstacles to mutual understanding. If the recipients of the written interaction do not know each other, then the text is completely depersonalized. No letter, even addressed to a loved one who understands all the shades of written words and expressions that evoke memories and ideas, can completely replace “live communication”.
Incorrect or incomplete understanding of the content of the message can be caused by both insufficiency and redundancy of the information contained in the message. The insufficiency of information is filled by applying repeated requests or is conjectured, completed. Excessive information often does not have time to be fully processed, transmitted and comprehended. Redundancy is created due to the repetition of the same message in various forms through many channels, repeating it over time.
Conscious or unintentional distortion of information occurs when written messages are transmitted vertically up and down. In documents that are being prepared for passing down the tier, some of the information that management deems unnecessary to disclose is omitted, some is embellished, and some is commented on in the right light. When sending written messages upwards, negative information is either omitted or commented on in their favor; positive information unfolds at a winning angle, intensifies.
If the manager suspects that the received message has an element of bias, then it is necessary to obtain information again from another source that has the opposite point of view in order to subsequently compare them to determine the cause of bias.
State, military, law enforcement agencies, in order to ensure their activities, deliberately create obstacles to the promotion of information. Unlimited dissemination of the entire flow of information between these institutions and the public could cause many administrative difficulties, and in some cases even paralyze their work.
Many obstacles to the passage of representative information characterizing the desired object or process arise from the desire of some employees to derive personal benefit from their official position. Here is how Lee Iacocca, who we mentioned, describes one such example: “I recall another case many years ago when Ford brought in a large manager to establish the activities of the marketing department. After some time, he was fired for doing something completely unthinkable - hiring a personal assistant for public relations, and applying for a consultant position. However, the truth soon surfaced. This manager's biggest concern was pushing reports of his successes to the newspaper pages. It is not surprising that he did not last long in his post.
In my book, I repeatedly referred to personal practice. And here I will not refrain from telling about another similar case. The head of the presidential administration of one of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation set it as his indispensable goal to become the President of the Republic and, accordingly, became within his fairly wide possibilities to control the flow of information, passing both from the bottom up and from the top down. Having determined the possible range of his future competitors, he introduced his people into their subordinate structures and tried to regulate the upward direction of negative information about these people, often resorting to insinuation. In addition, using power for his own selfish purposes, he fabricated and pushed unsubstantiated information into the state media that discredited conscientious workers. At the same time, among his friends, he boasted that he knew the methods of perceiving information, according to which negative information about leaders, even if incorrect, could be “erased” with ten times the effort. Thus, he completely tried to subordinate the regulated flows of information to his personal interests. Naturally, even an official of a sufficiently high rank did not stay in office, despite the support of the president.
Thus, the communication system in a social organism seems to be no less important than the nervous system in the human body, and the consequences of a failure of the communication system are no less terrible than the results of a malfunction. nervous system. As Herbert A. Simon, Donald W. Smithburt, Victor A. Thompson note, the nervous system also contains a number of elements that perform highly specialized functions: in particular, the sense organs and various organs of the brain. Similarly, the communication system in an organization may also have specialized elements that are largely related to the effectiveness of the communication process.
Particular attention should be paid to the distortion of information due to redundancy of information or insufficient ability of the transmission system to accept and process information at the input. Overloaded with information (sometimes unnecessary) flows create more problems for the communication system than it manages to solve them. Information overloads especially complicate the control system with multi-stage information transfer. Suppose, with seven levels of information transfer, each line manager has four subordinates. If each employee in this system produces one unit of information per unit of time, then 4096 units are obtained at the lower level. It has been empirically established that at each stage managers sift out half of the information, which leads to the fact that only 1.6% of the information reaches the top level, that is, 98.4% of the information is omitted.
Problems of information overloads are solved by regulation, filtering, queuing of messages. Knowing how to deliberately misrepresent information allows managers to prevent them in time. The elimination of intermediaries in information flows, the reduction in the number of levels of information transfer, the inspection of this type of activity by higher managers, the introduction of "channels of trust" into communication systems also contribute to reducing the distortion of information.
Questions for self-control
1. What means are used in the communication process?
2. What is the essence of common and different in communicative means?
3. What are the criteria for communication levels?
4. How do communication tools differ in terms of the degree of generalization of information?
5. What is the difference between signs, images, words, gestures and terms as communicative means?
6. What is semiotics? Its origins?
7. What is the expediency of highlighting the semiotic level of communication?
8. How is a sign understood in sociology? What are the main types of signs?
9. Why is the semiotic "principle of utterance" important for the study of social communication?
10. What is opposition as a semiotic regularity? How is it updated?
11. What is the significance of semiotic models built on opposition? Main types of models?
12. How is the cumulative property of communication systems understood at the semiotic level?
13. What aspects stand out in semiotics and what is their content?
14, What is the role of the semiotic level for the study of verbal communication in the sociological aspect?
Main literature
Vetrov A.A. Semiotics and its main problems. M.: Publishing house of political literature, 1968.
Morris C.W. Foundations of the theory of signs / / Semystic M. "Rainbow 1983.
Stepanov Yu.S. In the world of semiotics//Ibid.,
additional literature
Ivanov Vyach.V., Toporov V.N. Slavic language modeling semiotic systems. M., 1965.
Losev A.F. Sign. Symbol. Myth. M., 1982.
Solomonik A. Semiotics and Linguistics. M., Young Guard 1995.
Stepanov Yu.S. In the three-dimensional space of language. Semiotic problems of linguistics, philosophy, art. M. 1985.
Shreider Yu.A. The logic of sign systems. M., 1974,
Jacobson R. In Search of the Essence of I Language//Semysticism. M.: Rainbow, 1983,
In the communication process, there are certain obstacles - barriers to the dissemination of information, which cause all sorts of difficulties and give rise to quite serious distortions in messages. Among these obstacles, a significant place belongs to psychological causes.
There are frequent cases of deliberate misleading of partners by the sender of the message, since it is beneficial to him. The recipient of information also has the opportunity to deliberately distort it, speculating on the possible technical and socio-psychological difficulties of communication. Lies, intrigues, omissions, exaggerations, changes in emphasis - all this is as common today as it was many years ago. The reasons for such distortions are no different from the reasons for the persistence of lies in all its varieties. Remedies against lies - real responsibility, moral education employees and personal example leaders.
Messages are corrupted by filtering as they move from level to level in an organization or department. To speed up the movement of messages, you have to summarize and simplify them before sending them to different segments of the organization. The leader who determines what messages to send and where to send them can be tempted to weed out some messages and emphasize others. According to one study, only 63% of the content of information sent by the board of directors reached the vice presidents, 40% - to the heads of the shops, and 20% - to the workers.
There is a tendency to supply upper management with predominantly positively perceived information. The subordinate does not inform the manager about the potential or existing problem, because "does not want to upset him with bad news." Subordinates often tell their boss what they (they think) wants to hear. An additional reason for the deterioration of information coming to the top is the increased attention of middle managers to messages coming from the upper levels of power, compared to information from their subordinates[v]. Fear of punishment and a sense of uselessness prevent employees from transmitting information upstairs. Such an attitude towards the transmission of messages is “brought up” in an organization by the corresponding reactions of the recipients of information. The expression of dissatisfaction with "bad news", the lack of response to the reports of subordinates suppresses the communicative initiative and deforms participation in communications.
Consider the factors of the communicative process, which are preconditions to misrepresentation of information.
The general premise is the complexity of the communication process itself, its multi-stage and multi-factor nature. The message is in danger of being deformed at all stages of the communication process, including the initial one.
Messages are corrupted by verbal coding of the content to be transmitted and channel selection. “A thought uttered is a lie,” said the poet, and thousands of life and business tragedies confirm his correctness.
The expressed content, the so-called “surface structure”, is almost always poorer, more limited than the corresponding inner experience of a person, everything that he could adequately experience, realize and communicate (“deep structure”). This happens for a variety of reasons. Some of them are described in the Neuro Linguistic Programming literature.
Often in their statements in difficult communicative situations, people do not mention or somehow mask the subject or object of the action (distort, omit, generalize, reverse, replace with an indefinite expression).
It happens that the speaker does not name the object or subject to which the meaning of the sentence refers. For example, in the judgment "do not work well" the subject of the action is not mentioned. Naturally, the question arises: "Who works badly?" There is a clear lack of information here, which often leads to misunderstanding, and even to conflict. These turns are used in situations where a person does not want to face trouble, but wants to express dissatisfaction. They allow you to say something contradictory or conflicting. For example, a boss who might react negatively to a phrase is not mentioned. This "safe" linguistic model is commonly used by language type people.
Understanding this circumstance allows us to find out the reasons that prompt our partner to express himself vaguely. An appropriate question about the object or subject of actions helps the speaker reflect individual experience, reflect his feelings and choices made, which he may not be aware of.
Similar difficulties occur when expressions like the following are encountered: "I am not being helped"; "I'm being pulled into this story"; "He is not respected." In such cases, a question beginning with the pronoun “Who” is helpful.
The second way to get around the naming of a specific person or object of action is to use the pronouns "this", "that", "this", "so". Pronouns do not allow you to explain important elements of your message and run the risk of being misunderstood. The following dialogue illustrates such a situation.
Boss. - I really don't like it.
subordinate. What have I done to make you unhappy with me?
Boss. - It's not about you!
subordinate. - I do not want to listen to rudeness, even from the boss!
As you can see, the leader overly emotionally expresses dissatisfaction with something that does not apply to the present employee. He may be alarmed by the situation in the market. But the subordinate took the boss's words as a remark addressed to him personally ... And here are other examples of statements leading to conflict: “Nothing will work like that”; "It is very important"; "It's no good";
No less often one has to deal with statements that use generalizations belonging to some indefinite group or category. "Men don't cry", "Women are bad leaders", "Trade workers never say what they think"; “People who do this are not very responsible,” etc. A person operating with generalized speech categories does not name a specific person responsible for conflict behavior which avoids confrontation. Using this technique, you can talk about yourself in an indirect way: "There will always be people who will not agree with you." It is useful to pay attention to the following pronouns and words: “all”, “men”, “women”, “no one”, “people”, “everyone”, etc. The following dialogue example shows how one of these rash generalizations leads to conflict.
Secretary, to an employee waiting to see the boss: "Sometimes it seems to me that men are very lazy and irresponsible workers."
Employee: "Thank you! You know how to prepare a person for a conversation with the boss!
Frustrated, upset people often use the so-called "reverse reference index". “Is everyone against me?” such a person sometimes says. This means that the speaker shifts his responsibility for something to others. He becomes a victim of no one knows who. This model is characteristic of kinesthetics. Here is a typical scene.
Chief. No matter what I say, no one listens to me.
Employees. - Speak, boss, we're listening!
Chief. - No one cares that I have serious questions to discuss!
Employees. - Ivan Ivanovich, we know that what you say is very important.
Chief. - Then I have no choice but to look for another place. (Gets up and leaves).
Employees. - What's going on with our boss?
Such linguistic formulas are called "projection". If someone in the department says, “Nina is a gossip,” then we can assume that the Deep Structure is of the form “I am a gossip.” This is a projection of one's own shortcomings onto the personality of another. When people say that “this candidate is not suitable for us”, it can mean something flawed, like “we are not suitable for him”. If an employee complains: “They don’t understand me here,” then it is likely that, being more open, he would say: “I don’t understand them.”
One of the reasons for mutual misunderstanding is the implicit mismatch of the language of communication, the attribution of different meanings to the same symbols. Representatives different specialties and professions, social groups, subcultures, including age groups, interpret many seemingly well-known and common symbols differently, and if they do not pay attention to this when communicating with each other, then it is difficult to avoid misunderstandings. Problems also arise when the interlocutors belong to different psychological types. Extroverts and introverts have different communication styles; the same can be said about the communicative behavior of intuitive and sensory, rational and emotional types. People who have leading sensory system is vision, they experience difficulties in communicating with audials, that is, employees whose leading system for modeling reality is hearing. Kinesthetic learners face misunderstandings from both.
There are cultural differences here. Americans react with bewilderment to the "stone expression" of the faces of the interlocutors, while a smile does not often stay on the faces of Russians and Germans. Representatives of many European cultures communicate, keeping a certain distance and painfully reacting to the partner's attempts to reduce it. Those whose culture prefers a short distance perceive the distance of a partner as an unwillingness to deal. People who for some reason experience a sense of threat to their self-esteem perceive the approach, and even more so the touch of a partner, as a manifestation of aggression.
Many problems are associated with the incongruence of the communicative behavior of one or both partners. Incongruence means that verbal cues do not match non-verbal cues. It is perceived as a set of two opposite statements on the same topic, which is confusing, since it is necessary to determine which of the two opposite messages to believe - verbal or non-verbal. Research and everyday observations show that when verbal and non-verbal signals diverge, non-verbal signals are more trusted.
People often miss important messages from their partners just because they are not listening to them, but to themselves. Their attention is distracted from the immediate situation of communication and directed to their own thoughts and images. In "neuro-linguistic programming" - one of the directions modern psychology- an effective strategy of communicative behavior called "uptime" is described. Its meaning lies in the maximum focus on collecting exclusively external information. Own ideas and thoughts should be absent at this time. Everything should be reduced to the perception of observed signs and response to them without resorting to one's own consciousness.
Interfering with the achievement of mutual understanding distrust of the author of the message. There is an opinion that "the main source of distortions and violations in the process of communication is the lack of respect between partners." If we have a bad experience of interacting with certain employees or departments, then subsequent communications with them will be influenced by the previously formed negative attitude. Even more negative impact is exerted by conflict relations.
The opinions of people who are assigned the roles of “jokers”, “frivolous”, “critics”, etc. in the team, are usually met with stereotypes and often with distrust. On the contrary, the statements of people who are considered authoritative, specialists who can speak impressively and be persuasive, are given excessive weight. In both cases, errors of perception are possible, since the specific statements of the first may be valuable, and the second - erroneous or of little substance.
The tendency to premature evaluation of the message leads to errors. Instead of maintaining a neutral position until the end of the message, the partner reacts emotionally to the first phrases or even words. Behind such haste is the listener's self-confidence, his conviction that he knows in advance what he will say, or what the interlocutor wants to say. This usually blocks the message, stops the transmission of information, leaving the author feeling that they do not want to listen to him.
Messages are also distorted during their decoding (perception). Information that conflicts with the listener's experience or desire to hear something specific is either rejected or distorted in accordance with a preconceived orientation. Narrow specialists tend to interpret any information in terms of their specialty and their problems. Here there is a selectivity of perception depending on the range of interests, needs, emotional states and the external environment of people.
The probability of errors in communication channels increases with the growth of information loads. If there is too much information, if it takes a lot of time to process it, then some of the messages actually drop out of the communication process. Congestion in communication channels is much more common than is commonly thought. A communicator who speaks too fast or too long overloads the channel he is using. The ill-conceived information system of the organization, the irrational placement of people lead to an overload of communication channels. If the organization has many levels of management, then the result will be information overload of employees. It is no coincidence that effective organizations prefer structures with a small number of management levels and direct channels of information exchange.
Lecture 6 Motivation and performance of the organization
1. The concept of motivation.
2. Definition of the motivation function
3. Modern motivational models operating in management
4. Methods of motivation
The concept of motivation
Employee motivation is one of the central places in personnel management, since it is the direct cause of their behavior.
Today, for the effective operation of the organization, responsible and proactive employees, highly organized and striving for labor self-realization of the individual are required. It is impossible to ensure these qualities of an employee with the help of traditional forms of material incentives and strict external control, wages and punishments.
Motivation - This is the process of inducing a person to a certain activity with the help of intrapersonal and external factors.
There are various ways of motivation:
1) normative motivation – inducing a person to a certain behavior through ideological and psychological influence: persuasion, suggestion, information, etc.
2) forced motivation, based on the use of power and the threat of deterioration in the satisfaction of the needs of the employee if he does not comply with the relevant requirements;
3) stimulation – the impact is not directly on the individual, but on external circumstances with the help of benefits - incentives that encourage the employee to certain behavior.
The concept of “motive” occupies a central place in the theory of motivation. motive - this is a predominantly conscious internal motivation of a person to a certain behavior aimed at satisfying certain needs. The actualization of a motive means its transformation into the main impulse of psychological activity that determines behavior.
The motive characterizes, first of all, the volitional side of behavior, i.e. it is inextricably linked with the will of man. It is predominantly a conscious urge. The motive is generated by a certain need, which is the ultimate cause of human actions.
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yFBL, OBN RTEDUFPYF PVEEOYE U RBTFOETPN RP VYOEUXH. at YuEZP OBYUBFSH BOBMYYTPCHBFSH - CHPNPTSOP, YULBTSEOYE YOZHPTNBGYY CH DBOOPN CHBYNPDEKUFCHYY YMY POP NBMPCHETPSFOP? DMS OBYUBMB, DBCHBKFE PRTEDEMYN, UFP NSC HCE OBEN PV LFPN YuEMPCHELE, P EZP NBOETE RPCHEDEOYS. LBL BY UEVS WHAT H TBMYUOSCHI UYFKHBGYSI TBOSHIE? FP YEMPCHEL, ABOUT LPFPTPZP NPTsOP RPMPTSYFSHUS YMY OEF? lBLPCHSHCH EZP UMBVPUFY, HSCHYNSCHE NEUFB? UPVYTBEN, UPVYTBEN Y UPVYTBEN YOZHPTNBGYA PV FFPN YUEMPCHELE. and LPMYUEUFCHP YOZHPTNBGYY DPMTSOP VSHCHFSH RTSNP RTPRPTGYPOBMSHOP CHBTSOPUFY UDEMLY. YuEN VPMSHIE PRBUOPUFSH NOPZPE RPFETSFSh, FEN FEBFEMSHOEE OEPVVIPDYNP ZPFCHYFSHUS L CHUFTEYUE. eUMMY NSCH UBNY OE OBEN LFPZP YuEMPCHELB, ChPNPTsOP, OBLY DEMPCHSCHE RBTFOETSCH TBVPFBMY U OIN Y NPZHF LBL-FP EZP PIBTBLFETYЪPCHBFSH. FP HCE OERMPIP. rPFPNH UFP YuEMPCHEL UBEEE CHUEZP CHEDEF UEVS RTYCHSHCHUOSCHN DMS UEVS PVTBPN. eUMY YFP YEMSHNEG, FP CHEMYLB CHETPSFOPUFSH FPZP, YuFP PO RPUFBTBEFUS PVNBOKhFSH Y CHBU. LBL RTBCHYMP, LTHZ DEMPCHSCHI RBTFOETCH, U LPFPTSHNY NSC PVEBENUS, DPUFBFPYuOP OECHEMYL. YOZHPTNBHYS TBURTPUFTBOSEPHUS VSHCHUFTP. ChTSD MY, UFPVSCH CHSHCH OE UNPZMY UPVTBFSH YOFETEUKHAEKHA CHBU YOZHPTNBGYA. pFLHDB RPSCHYMUS UEMPCHEL? LFP EZP TELPNEODPCHBM? tBVPFBM MY TELPNEODPCHBCHYK CHBN YUEMPCHEL U OIN TBOEE? lTHZ CHPRTPUPCH PVYTEO, DB. OP, RTBCHP CE UFPYF RPFTHDYFSHUS, YUEN RPFPN "LHUBFSH UEVE MPLFY". CHUS VEDB CH FPN, UFP YUFYOOSHCHE NPIEOOOYLY LBTSHFUS U RETCHPZP TBBM MADSHNY PYUBTPCHBFEMSHOSHCHNY, SOY MEZLP OBIPDSF UP CHUENY PVEYK SHCHL, TBURPMBZBAF LUEVE UPVEUEDOILB. OP DEMP CH FPN, UFP LFP YI TBVPFB. fp YI LHUPL IMEVB. th OE PVMBDBK POY LFYNY LBYEUFCHBNY, CHPNPTSOP, POY ЪBOSMYUSH VSC YUEN-FP YOSCHN. GENERAL RTPVMENSCH YEHF TPD OBYI ЪBOSFYK. MADY PVEYFEMSHOSHCHE, OP FE, LPFPTSHOE MAVSF CHLMBDSHCHBFSH UYMSCH H TBVPFKh, YEHF Y UPPFCHEFUFCHEOOOSCH RKhFY DPIPDHR. IPFS, LPOEYUOP CE, OEMSHЪS PZKHMSHOP ZPCHPTYFSH, YUFP CHUE PVEYFEMSHOSHCHE MADY - NPEOOOYLY, OP RPDUFTBICHBFSHUS, FEN OE NEOEE, OE RPNEYBEF.
nPTsOP HUMPCHOP RPDEMYFSH MADEK ABOUT FTY VPMSHYE ZTHRRSCH: FFP MADY, RTPZHEUUYPOBMSHOP YULBTSBAEYE YOZHPTNBGYA, RTYTPTSDEOOSHCH MZHOSHCH - EUFSH Y FBLBS LBFEZPTYS MADEK; Y CHUE NSCH - PUFBMSHOBS Y VPMSHYBS YUBUFSH MADEK, PVNBOSCCHCHBAEBS DTHZ DTHZB CHTENS PF READER RP OEPVIPDYNPUFY.
lPZP NPTsOP PFOEUFY L RTPZHEUUIPOBMBN? FP OE FPMSHLP RTPZHEUUYPOBMSHOSCHE NPYEOOYLY, BZHETYUFSCH CHUEI NBUFEK, LYDBMSCH, GSCHZBOLY-ZBDBMLY, OP J FBLYE HCHBTSBENSCHE MADY, LBL DYRMPNBFSCH, BTFYUFSCH (YZTBS TPMSH Sing RETECHPRMPEBAFUS H DTHZPZP YUEMPCHELB Q, RP UHFY, CHCHPDSF DTHZYI MADEK BVMHTSDEOYE H). dTHZPE DEMP, UFP POY YZTBAF RP RTBCHYMBN. NSC FBL DPZPCHPTYMYUSH. x RPMYFYLPC, DYRMPNBFPCH YULBTSEOYE YOZHPTNBGYY FFP FPTSE IMEV OBUKHEOSCHK, RTBCHDB, CH TBOPK UFEREOY. OP, S DKHNBA, OY H LPZP OE CHPOYLBEF UPNOEOIS, UFP CH FIYI PVMBUFSI GBTYF PFOADSH OE CHBYNOBS PFLTSCHFPUFSH. dBMEE PUPVP IPYUKH CHSHDEMYFSH RBFPMPZYUEULYI CHTHOPCH. YI PRYUBM EEE r.v. zBOOHYLYO CH UCHPEK TBVPFE "lMYOYLB RUYIPRBFYK, YI UVBFYLB, DYOBNYLB, UYUFENBFYLB" (1) . dBCHBKFE PVTBFYNUS L LFPK TBVPFE Y TBVETENUS LFP CE FBLIE RBFPMPZYUEULIE MZHOSHCH.
rBFPMPZYUEULYE MZHOSHCH. FFY MADY "CHTHF, LBL DSHYBF". x OII UHEEUFCHHEF RPFTEVOPUFSH RTYCHMELBFSH L UEVE CHOYNBOYE Y PUMERMSFSH DTHZYI MADEK VMEULPN UCHPEK MYUOPUFY. yuBEE CHUEZP FFP MADY, PVMBDBAEYE PTEDEMEOOOSCHNY URPUPVOPUFSNY. sing UPPVTBYFEMSHOSHCH, OBIPDYUYCHSHCH, VSHCHUFTP HUCHBYCHBAF CHUE OPCHPE, LTBUYCHP ZPCHPTSF Y HNEAF YURPMSHЪPCHBFSH DMS UCHPYI GEMEK MAVPE BOBOYE, LPFPTSCHN PVMBDBAF. POI NPZHF LBBFSHUS PVTBPCHBOOSCHNY, PVMBDBS FPMSHLP RPCHETIOPUFOSHCHNY BOBOISNY. LFY MADY VSHCHUFTP ЪBCHSЪSCHCHBAF ЪOBLPNUFCHB, IPTPYP RTYURPUBVMMYCHBAFUS L MADSN, MEZLP ЪBCHSЪSCHCHCHBAF DPCHETYE. sing HNEAF DETTSBFSHUS U DPUFPYOUFCHPN, MPCHLY Y YЪSEOSCH, ЪBVPFSFUS P UCHPEK CHOEYOPUFY Y P FPN CHEYUBFMEOYY, LPFPTPE POI RTPYЪCHPDSF ABOUT PLTHTSBAEYI MADEK.
OP FBLCE OBDP PFNEFYFSH, UFP H OI PFUHFUFCHHEF RPDMYOOSHK YOFETEU L YUENH-MYVP, OE UCHSBOOPNKH U YI MYUOPUFSHHA. x OYI OEF CHSHCHDETZLY, RTYMETSBOYS. sing MEZLP PFCHMELBAFUS, TBBTBUSCHCHBAFUS. tBVPFB, FTEVHAEBS HRPTUFCHB Y BLLHTTBFOPUFY DMS OII OERETEOPUYNB. FP MEZLPNSCHUMEOOSCHE MADY, OE URPUPOSCHE L ZMHVPLYN RETETSYCHBOISN Y RTYCHSBOOPUFSN. sing MAVSF FPMSHLP UBNYI UEVS.
mZHF POI NBUFETULY, YUBUFP HCHMELBSUSH UPVUFCHEOOOSCHNY ZHBOFBYSNY Y ЪBVSCHCHBS P FPN, YuFP LFP MPTSSH. RP YI RPCHEDEOYUEULYN RTJOBBLBN OECHPЪNPTSOP RPOSFSH, UFP POI MZHF, RPFPNKh UFP POI UBNY YULTEOOOE CHETSF CH FP, UFP ZPCHPTSF. YI RPCHEDEOYE Y UMPCHB LPOZTHIOFOSHCH. rTY YI VPZBFPN CHPPVTBTSEOY POI NPZHF H NEMSHYUBKYI RPDTPVOPUFSI PRYUBFSH PVUFBOPCHLH OEUHEUFCHHAEK CHIMMSCH, LPFPTBS YN SLPVSH RTYOBDMETSYF. VPMSHIE FPZP, POY NPZHF RPEIBFSH Y RPLBBFSH YUSHA-FP CHYMMH RPD CHYDPN UCHPEK UPVUFCHEOOOPK. FP NOPZPYUYUMEOOSCHE BZHETYUFSHCH, CHCHDBAEYE UEVS b PYUEOSH VPZBFSHCHI MADEK. ffp ybtmbfboshch, rtyuchbychbaeye ueve chboye chtbyuk, yotseoetpch, dytelfptpch vbolch. fBLPCHSC YKHMETSHCH Y DBCE NEMLY HMYUOSCHE TSKHMYLY, TBUULBSCCHBAEYE P UCHPYI "OYUYUBUFSHSI". sing MZHF UBNPKhCHETEOOP. yI OECHPЪNPTSOP OYYUEN UNHFYFSH. VKHDHYUI RTYRETFSHCHNY L UFEOL, SING MEZLP CHCHCHETFSHCHBAFUUS. rPDYUBU POI UBNY OBYUYOBAF CHETYFSH CH FP, UFP ZPCHPTSF.
LBL CHYDYFE, U OYNY DPUFBFPYuOP UMPTSOP UPUFSЪBFSHUS. PRTEDEMYCH FBLCHPZP YMY FPMSHLP ЪBRPDPЪTYCH, MKHYUYE CHPCHTENS PFPKFY CH UFPTPOH - F. L. CHEMYLB CHETPSFPOUFSH FPZP, UFP SING CHBU RETEYZTBAF. yFP CHYTFKHPSHCH PVNBOB, YULBTSEOIS YOZHPTNBGYY Y BYUBUFHA DPZBDBFSHUS P FPN, UFP POY YULBTSBAF YOZHPTNBGYA YUTECHSHCHSHCHYUBKOP FTHDOP. fng OECHPMSHOP RPDDBEYSHUS YI PVBSOIA, YI YUBTBN. h MAVPN UMHYUBE, OBDP OBFSH, YUFP FBLIE MADY UHEEUFCHHAF Y HUYFSHCHCHBFSH YI RTPZHEUUYPOBMYN. b EEE MHYUYE OE YNEFSH U OYNY OILBLYI DEM.
FERETSH PUFBMYUSH "MAVIFEMI". yI NPTsOP RPDEMIFSH OB FEI, LFP CHETYF CH FP, UFP ZPCHPTYF, F.E. bbwmhcdbefus. rTPUFP EZP RTBCHDB OE SCHMSEFUS YUFYOOPC. h FFPN UMHYUBE YUEMPCHEL RPMOPUFSHHA LPOZTHIOFEO, FEMEUOSCHE RTYOBLY MTSY RPMOPUFSHHA PFUKHFUFFCHHAF. DEUSH GEMEUPPVTBOP RPYULBFSH MPZYUEULIE OEUFSHCHLPCHLY, FEBFEMSHOP RTPCHETYFSH UHFSH YOZHPTNBGYY. y ChFPTBS ZTHRRB - YuEMPCHEL OE CHETYF CH FP, UFP PO ZPCHPTYF, F.E. PO PUPOBEF, UFP UPOBFEMSHOP MTSEF ChBN. fBLHA MPTSSH BYUBUFHA NPTsOP PRTEDEMYFSH RP FEMEUOSCHN RTYOBBLN, PZPCHPTTLBN, MYGECHSHCHN LURTEUUISN Y F.R. h MAVPN Y RTEDUFBCHMEOOSHI CHBN UMHYUBECH UOBYUBMB OEPVIPDYNP PRTDEMYFSH NPFICHSHCH YULBTSEOIS YOZHPTNBGYY, F.E. PFCHEFYFSH ABOUT CHPRTPU: BYuEN? BYuEN YUEMPCELKH FFP OHTSOP. chTSD MY, UFPVSCH OPTNBMSHOSHCHE MADY CHTBMY YЪ MAVCHY L YULKHUUFCHH. LBL ZPCHPTSF ATYUFSHCH, YEYFE, LPNKh LFP CHSHZPDOP Y CHSHCHOE PYYVEFEUSH.
SELECH PVNBAEYLPH - MAVIFEMEK FBLTER NPCOP TBDEMIFSH About DCHZYE LBFEZPTY: PDO Yulbyzbafe YuzhpTNBGYA, RPFPNH YUFP YI CHSCHCHTSDBAF L IFPH PVUFFSFEMCHUFCHB, B DHZYEE - RPFPNH YUFP OE NPZHEU. nPTsOP ULBBFSH, UFP LFP ChBTYBOF DEFULPK BEYFSCH: UPCTBFSH, UFPVSH OE RPTKhZBMY. yuEMPCEL HCE DBCHOP CHSHCHTPU, OP RTPDPMTSBEF PUFBCHBFSHUS CH DHYE NBMEOSHLYN TEVEOLPN, Y LBL PO TBOSHIE BEEYEBMUS PF ZOECHB TPDYFEMEK, FBL UEKYUBU BEEYEBEFUS PF CHOEYOEZP NYTB. ON OE HNEEF RP-DTKhZPNKh. rTYUEN FBLIE MADY, LBL RTBCHYMP, UYUYFBAF OEYUEUFOSHCHN CHEUSH PLTHTSBAEYK NYT. sFP SCHMSEFUS YI NEIBOYINPN RUYIPMPZYUEULPK BEIFSHCH. yuEMPCEL RSHCHFBEFUS OBKFY PRTBCHDBOYE UCHPENKH RPCHEDEOYA, OBIPDYF DMS FFZP TEBMSHOSHCHE YMY CHCHNSCHYMEOOOSCH RTYUYOSCH. at DTHZPK UFPTPOSCH, EUMY FSC YULBTSBEYSH YOZHPTNBGYA, FSC DPMTSEO VSHCHFSH ZPFPH L FBLPNKh CE UP UFPTPOSCH DTHZYI MADEK, YVP DEKUFCHYE TBCHOP RTPFYCHPDEKUFCHYA.
NS RPDTPVOP PUFBOCHYMYUSH ABOUT DCHHI PUOPCHOSHI NPNEOFBI - LFP ABOUT RTEDPMBZBENSCHI NPFICHBI YULBTSEOIS YOZHPTNBGYY Y UFP NSCH OBEN PV LFPN YUEMPCHELE Y YUBUFYUOP MBFTPOKHMYUFTPOKHMY. rPFPNH UFP, YUIPDS YU UFTHLFHTSCH MYUOPUFY CHUE, DBCE NPFICHSHCH, VHDHF TBMYUOSCH. fBL, NEMBOIPMYLY, YUBUFP YULBTSBAF YOZHPTNBGYA, YUFPVSCH YЪVETSBFSH OERTYSFOPUFY, ZHMEZNBFIYLY - YUFPVSH YЪ-ЪB PFUFBYCHBOYS UCHPYI UPGILPOPNYUEULYI YOFETEUPCH. iPMETEYLY - UFPVSCH VSHCHFSH ABOUT CHIDKH. OBYVPMEE STLYN RTYNETPN VSCHM iMEUFBLPC. vBTPO NAOBHJEO Y F.R.
FERETSH DBCBKFE TBUUNPFTYN TBMYUOSCHE FEIOPMPZYUEULYE RTYENSCH YULBTSEOIS YOZHPTNBGYY. CHEDSH FPMSHLP IPTPYP CHMBDES FEIOPMPZYEK PVNBOB, NPTsOP HCHYDEFSH RPDCHPDOSHCHE LBNOY CH FEI YMY YOSHI UIFHBGYSI Y CHPCHTENS PFPKFY CH UFPTPOH YMY YURPMSHЪPCHBFSH YI, LBL CH BKLYDP, DMS UCHMEPES.
NSC HCE ZPCHPTYMY, UFP RTYUYOSCH YULBTSEOIS MADSHNY YOZHPTNBGYY NOZPPVTBOSCH. uppveeoye bbchedpnp oedpufpchetopk YOZHPTNBGYY, OEBCCHYUYNP PF UFEREOY RTEDOBNETEOOPUFY, NPTSOP PVOBTHTSYFSH H MAVPK ALREADY DEFEMSHOPUFY - VYOEUE, LLPOPNYLE, RPMYFYLE, F.E. FBN, ZDE YUBUFP CHPOYLBEF RPMPTSEOYE, RTY LPFPTPN RPUTEDUFCHPN YULBTSEOIS YOZHPTNBGYY NPTSEF VSHCHFSH DPUFYZOHFP RTEINKHEEUFCHP. yNEOOP RPFPNKH YODYCHYD YMY ZTHRRB CHUEZDB UVBTBAFUS YURPMSHЪPCHBFSH LFY NEIBOYNSCH DPUFYTSEOIS GEMEK. pUPVEOOP YUBUFP OEYUFYOOPC YOZHPTNBGEK RPMSHHAFUS CH IPDE UPRETOYYUEUFCHB, CHTBTSDEVOPK LPOLHTEOHYY, UFPMLOPCHEOYS RTPFYCHPRMPTSOSCHI YOFETEUPCH. POB YBUFP RTYNEOSEFUS DMS DPUFYTSEOIS RPVESHCH OBD RTPFYCHOYLPN, EZP DYULTEDYFBGYY, ONETEOOPZP CHCHEDEOYS H SBVMHTSDEOYE Y DPUFYTSEOIS TBMYUOSCHI DTHZYI GEMEK.
oEYUFYOOSCHE UPPVEEOIS NPZHF VSHCHFSH YNRHMSHUYCHOSCHNY, RYЪPDYUEULYNY. pDOBLP, CHSHDEMSAF Y UFTTBFEZYUEULPE YULBTSEOYE YOZHPTNBGYY, OBRTBCCHMEOOPE ABOUT RPUFEREOOPE UPEDBOYE TSEMBENPZP PVTBB YuEMPCHELB CH ZMBBBI RBTFOETB RP PVEEOIA. h FFPN UMHYUBE YULBTSEOYE YOZHPTNBGYY VPMEE UMPTSOP PTZBOYBPCHBOP, HER UPPFOPEOYE U YOZHPTNBGYEK RTBCHDYCHPK PVSCHYUOP BTBOEE TBUUYUYFBOP, ZHPTNYTHAFUS UREGYBMSHOSHCHE LPNVYOPDYOYOGEYOK. YuEMPCHEL, YURPMSHKHAEYK OYUFYOOSCHE UPVEEOIS, OBDECHBEF OB UEVS OHTSOKHA ENH NBULH, UPDBEF PVTB, RTYCHMELBFEMSHOSHCHK DMS PVYAELFB CHPDEKUFCHYS.
b VSCCHBEF, UFP YULBTSEOYE YOZHPTNBGYY RTPYUIPDYF OE RP CHYOE YUFPYUOILB YOZHPTNBGYY, B CH RTPGEUUE EE RETEDBYUY, F.E. YUFPYUOYLPN DEJOYOZHPTNBGYY UMHTSYF UBN LBOBM RETEDBYUY. MADY TEDLP ЪBDKHNSCHCHBAFUS, OBULPMSHLP YUBUFP RTYUYOPK OERPOYNBOIS OBNY DTHZ DTHZB UMHTSBF PYYVLY, CHPOYLBAEYE RTY RETEDBYUE UPPVEEOIS. MADY BRPNYOBAF CH PUOPCHOPN UNSCHUM UPPVEEOIS, BOE UMPCHB, LPFPTSHNY POP RETEDBCHBMPUSH. y EUMY UNSCHUM OERTBCHIMSHOP RPOSF, FP DBMSHYE HCE YDHF PYYVLY. th FPZDB ABOUT CHIPDE Y ABOUT CHSHIPDE NSCH YNEEN UCHETIEOOOP TBOKHA YOZHPTNBGYA. th LFP CHYOPCHBF?
DTHZPK BERELF CPNPTSOPZP YULBETSOOKS YozhpTNBGY - TBOPE FPMLPCHEBE PDOI FIRI TSA UMPHPOBGY, KBLPH RTERYSOKS, Lpofelufb YMY Buhupybgjk, ChPojlbayi x Tucks Madek about PDO FE TSE SMPCH. oELPFPTSHCHE MADY FBL HNEAF UFTPIYFSH ZHTBSCH, UFP, ZBLFYUEULY PVNBOSHCHCHBS UCHPEZP UPVEUEDOILB, ZHPTNBMSHOP PUFBAFUS RTBCHSHCHNY. CHURPNOYN IPFS VSC UIFHBGYA YЪ DEFULPZP NHMSHFZHIMSHNB. h BCHYUYNPUFY PF FPZP, ZDE VKhDEF RPUFBCHMEOB BRSFBS, UNSCHUM ZHTBSHCH RPMOPUFSHHA NEOSEFUUS: "lBOYFSH OEMSHЪS RPNYMPCHBFSH".
OP ZMBCHOPE DBCE OE CH FFPN. uFPVSHCH HDBMBUSH MAVBS IYFTPUFSH, OHTSOP RTEDCHBTYFEMSHOP HUSHCHRYFSH RPDPTEOYS CETFCHSHCH, RPFPNKH YUFP EUMY YUEMCHEL YUKHCHUFCHHEF CHPNPTSOPUFSH VShchFSH PVNBOKhFSCHN, PO UTBIH CE OBNUFSCHCHN h LFPN UMHYUBE CH HNE CHCHEYCHBEFUUS LBTsDPE UMCHP, LBTsDSHK TSEUF. th OBPVPTPF, EUMY NSCH DPCHETSEN YUEMPCELKH, NSCH CHEDEN UEVS UCHPPVPDOP Y TBULPCHBOOP. rPFPNKh EUMY YUEMPCHEL IPYUEF PVNBOHFSH, PO UVBTBEFUS CHOHYYFSH UCHPEK CETFCHE DPCHETYE Y FPMSHLP RPUME LFPZP RTYUFHRBEF L YULBTSEOYA YOZHPTNBGYY. LBL BY FFP DEMBEF? h SDI YDHF Chui UTEDUFCHB, OBYUYOBS PF ZHPTNYTPCHBOYS UPPFCHEFUFCHHAEEK TERHFBGYY, UPDBOYS YNYDTSB RTBCHDYCHPZP YUEMPCHELB, UPDBOYS PRTEDEMEOOPK MEZEODSCH, LPFPTBS R ™ £ PVEUREYUYCHBMB OELTYFYYUEULPE CHPURTYSFYE UE UFPTPOSCH TSETFCHSCH, MEUFSH, YZTB ON YODYCHYDHBMSHOSCHI MYYUOPUFOSCHI PUPVEOOPUFSI (CHURPNOYN ZHYMSHN OBYEZP DEFUFCHB "rTYLMAYuEOYS vHTBFYOP" Q REUOA MYUSCH bMYUSch : "ABOUT DHTBLB OE OHTSEO OPTs, ENKH U FTY LPTPVB OBCHTEYSH, Y DEMBK U OIN UFP IPYSH"). x RPFEOGYBMSHOPK CETFCHSHCH ZHPTNYTHEFUS YUHCHUFCHP UPVUFCHEOOOPK OBYUYNPUFY. of the ECE dEKM lBTOEZY RYUBM, YUFP "RPYUFY LBTSDSCHK CHUFTEYUBAEYKUS CHBN YUEMPCHEL UYUYFBEF UEVS B LBLPN-OP PFOPYEOYY CHSCHYE CHBU, Q BL OBKDEFE CHETOSCHK RHFSH A EZP UETDGH, EUMY OEOBCHSYUYCHP DBDYFE ENH RPOSFSH, YUFP RTYOBEFE FH CHBTSOHA TPMSH, LPFPTHA IN YZTBEF B UCHPEN NBMEOSHLPN NYTLE , Y RTJOBEFEE HER YULTEOOOE".
p RTYENBI YULBTSEOIS YOZHPTNBGYY ChSCH RTPUFEFE CH UMEDHAEEK YUBUFY UVBFSHY.
on the. lPOCHBMEOLP,
UPGYBMSHOSHCHK RUYIPMPZ,
VYOEEU-OPOUHMSHFBOF.
(1) ZBOOHYLYO r.v. lMYOYLB RUYIPRBFYK, YI UFBFIELB, DYOBNYLB, UYUFENBFIELB.- o.o.pchZPTPD: YID-CHP oznb, 2000.- 124 U.