Biology

The main diagnostic approaches in psychodiagnostics. Psychodiagnostic method and diagnostic approaches

The development of psychological diagnostics leads to the emergence of a special research method - diagnostic. What place does this method occupy in the system of other methods of psychology, what is its specificity?

Due to the fact that in the psychological literature we often meet with different content, invested in the concepts of "method" and "technique", we will immediately define our position. We proceed from the assumption that the well-known methodological principles of psychology receive their primary concretization in the research method.

It is generally accepted to divide the research method into non-experimental(descriptive) and experimental. The non-experimental method forms different types(methods of) observation, conversation, study of the products of activity. The experimental method is based on the directed creation of conditions that ensure the isolation of the studied factor (variable) and the registration of changes associated with its action, and also allows the possibility of active intervention of the researcher in the activity of the subject. On the basis of this method, numerous and traditional for psychology methods of laboratory and natural experiment are built, as well as a special kind of them - a formative experiment.

Diagnostic techniques (tests) are sometimes considered within the framework of the experimental method (B.G. Ananiev, 1976, etc.). We believe that should be highlighted psychodiagnostic method, having well-defined features and generalizing a variety of specific techniques.

The main feature of the psychodiagnostic method is its measuring and testing, evaluative orientation, due to which the quantitative (and qualitative) qualification of the phenomenon under study is achieved. This becomes possible by following certain requirements characteristic of the psychodiagnostic method.

One of the most important requirements is the standardization of the measurement tool, which is based on the concept norms, since an individual assessment, for example, the success of the task, can be obtained by comparison with the results of other subjects. It is equally important that any diagnostic technique (test) must meet the requirements reliability and validity. The concepts of norm, validity and reliability are the "three pillars" on which the development and application of diagnostic techniques... Strict requirements are also imposed on the research procedure (strict adherence to instructions, strictly defined ways of presenting stimulus material, time constraints and inadmissibility of the experimenter's intervention, etc.). We add to this that the analysis of the psychodiagnostic method makes it possible to single out specific motives, determining the activity of the subject, special the strategy of his behavior, especially the situation- both social (interaction between the psychologist and the subject) and stimulus (for example, with varying degrees of structuredness).

When characterizing the diagnostic method, it is not enough to limit ourselves to an indication of its measuring and testing orientation. Otherwise, priority explanations given to the experimental method. In fact, a diagnostic study in its complete form should include elements of explanation, disclosure of reasons, and finally the development of appropriate recommendations (for more details, see below).

The psychodiagnostic method is concretized in three main diagnostic approaches, which practically exhaust the many known techniques (tests). These approaches can be roughly designated as objective, subjective and projective.

We can summarize what has been said in the form of a hierarchical ladder of the system of means of cognition in psychology (Fig. 2.1).

As can be seen from the figure, there are principles of psychological research. Below are research methods: non-experimental (descriptive), experimental and psychodiagnostic. At an even lower level, corresponding to each of the named methods are placed approaches. At the bottom of the figure are specific techniques, formed within the framework of certain approaches. It is necessary to dwell on diagnostic approaches in more detail.

Objective approach - diagnostics is carried out on the basis of the success (effectiveness) and / or the method (characteristics) of the activity.

Subjective approach - diagnostics is carried out on the basis of information reported about oneself, self-description (self-assessment) of personality characteristics, state, behavior in certain situations.

Projective approach - diagnostics is carried out on the basis of an analysis of the features of interaction with an outwardly neutral, as it were, impersonal material, which, due to its known uncertainty (weak structure), becomes an object of projection.

For readers who are used to opposing the objective and the subjective, let us immediately point out that in this context, subjectivity does not mean falsity, but objectivity does not mean truth. Further consideration of those tests or methods that correspond to the indicated approaches makes it easy to verify the validity of this provision.

An objective approach to the diagnosis of manifestations of human individuality mainly forms two types of techniques, the division of which has become traditional. it methods for diagnostics itself personality traits and intelligence tests. The former are aimed at “measuring” the non-intellectual characteristics of a person, the latter are aimed at establishing the level of his intellectual development.

Of course, such a "isolation" of the sphere of personal (characterological) manifestations and the sphere of intelligence has a limited, but nevertheless important for psychodiagnostics, meaning. S. L. Rubinstein at one time very accurately pointed out that the mental properties of a person form two main groups: characterological properties and capabilities. The first group of properties is associated with incentive (motivational) regulation of behavior, and the second provides organization and performance. Preservation of relative independence for personal manifestations, on the one hand, and intellect, on the other, allows one to penetrate deeper into the essence of these mental formations. Finally, it is known that the accentuation of their functional uniqueness contributed to the development of diagnostic techniques, the practical value of which is undeniable.

Diagnostics of the level of intellectual development is represented by numerous intelligence tests (tests of general abilities). Personal techniques, allocated within the framework of the objective approach, can be conditionally subdivided into action tests("Target personality tests") and situational tests. The most common targeted personality tests are a variety of perceptual tests, such as detecting masked figures. In situational tests, the subject is placed in a situation similar / similar to that which may arise in life. Finally, in the objective approach, two more significant groups of tests are formed: special ability tests, designed to measure the level of development of individual aspects of intelligence and psychomotor functions, ensuring efficiency in specific, rather narrow areas of activity, and achievement tests that reveal the degree of possession of certain knowledge, skills, and abilities.

The subjective approach is represented by numerous questionnaires. These common diagnostic tools, in their most general form, can be subdivided into personality questionnaires, state and mood questionnaires, and opinion questionnaires and questionnaires-questionnaires. The last three groups of questionnaires are designed to obtain information about the subject, which, as a rule, is not directly related to one or another of his personal characteristics, however, opinion questionnaires, which are common in sociological, socio-psychological research and are designed for a variety of specific tasks, can to a certain extent reflect the personal characteristics of the respondents.

Questionnaires are widely used in clinical psychodiagnostics in the form symptom questionnaires. Also, questionnaires-questionnaires can be attributed biographical questionnaires.

For the methods created within the framework of the projective approach, various classifications have been proposed (for more details see Chapter 6). The simplest and most convenient is their division into: motor expressive, perceptual-structural and apperceptive-dynamic (S. Rosenzweig, 1964).

The diagnostic approaches described above perform not only a classification function. These approaches are presented, as it were, in the form of a scale of "compliance to measurability" of those individual psychological characteristics, the disclosure of which they are aimed at (the possibilities of applying the basic psychometric requirements for the methods formed by these approaches are consistently limited), a scale corresponding at the same time to the degree of structuredness used stimulus material. This is most obvious when comparing, for example, intelligence tests and projective techniques... For the psychometric assessment of the validity and reliability of the latter, there is still no adequate mathematical and statistical apparatus.

The system "method-approach-methodology" discussed by us in relation to the diagnostic method is shown in Fig. 2.2.

Within each of the approaches, groups of homogeneous, close to each other techniques can be distinguished. Of course, the proposed classification is not the only possible one and, like any other, has certain disadvantages. It is clear that some specific psychodiagnostic techniques can hardly be attributed to one of the three selected approaches, they will occupy, as it were, an intermediate position. There are no and cannot be “impassable” boundaries between different diagnostic approaches. The purpose of our classification is not to replenish the list of existing ones, but to find a simple and logically grounded scheme for presenting those problems of psychological diagnostics that seem to us the most important and relevant at this stage of development of psychological knowledge.

Response plan:

Three main diagnostic approaches. 1

Personality questionnaires. 2

Questionnaires - questionnaires. 5

State and mood questionnaires. 6

Opinion questionnaires. 7

Three main diagnostic approaches.

The psychodiagnostic method is concretized in three main diagnostic approaches, which practically cover the entire set of available diagnostic techniques (tests).

1. Objective approach - diagnostics is carried out on the basis of the success (effectiveness) and the method (features) of the activity. This approach to the diagnosis of manifestations of human individuality has led to the formation of two types of techniques (tests), the well-known opposition of which has become traditional. These are personality tests and intelligence tests, etc.

2. Subjective approach - diagnostics is carried out on the basis of information reported about oneself, self-description of personality traits, behavior in certain situations. The subjective approach is represented, first of all, by numerous personality questionnaires.

3. Projective approach - diagnostics is carried out on the basis of an analysis of the features of interaction with an outwardly neutral, seemingly indifferent material, which, due to its known uncertainty (weakly structured), becomes an object of projection.

Within each of the diagnostic approaches, groups of fairly homogeneous, close to each other techniques (tests) can be distinguished.

At the same time, it is difficult to attribute some techniques to one of the approaches, they will occupy a sort of intermediate position - there are no and cannot be strict, insurmountable boundaries between diagnostic methods.

Within the boundaries of each approach, a significant number of specific techniques can be designed with which the researcher works.

Methodology is a form of implementation of both the method and the specifics of the diagnostic approach, and is a set of techniques and operations, formalized rules for conducting an examination and diagnosis.

The subjective approach is represented by numerous questionnaires.

Questionnaires are a group of psychodiagnostic techniques in which tasks are presented in the form of questions and statements.They are designed to obtain data from the words of the subject Questionnaires are among the most common diagnostic tools and can be subdivided into personality questionnaires and questionnaire questionnaires

Personality questionnaires.

Personality questionnaires can be considered as standardized self-reports, which are group and individual in form, most often written, form or computer. By the nature of the answers to the questions, they are divided into questionnaires with prescribed answers (closed questionnaires) and with free answers (open questionnaires).

In closed questionnaires, options for answers to the question posed are provided in advance.The subject must choose one of them. there may be "correct" and "incorrect" answers They only reflect the measure of agreement or disagreement of the subject with this or that statement. The advantage of closed questions is the simplicity of the procedure for registering and processing data, a clear formalization of the assessment, which is important in a mass survey.

At the same time, this form of response "coarsens" the information. Often, the subjects have difficulties when it is necessary to make a categorical decision.

Open questionnaires provide free answers without any special restrictions Subjects give an answer at their discretion Standardization of processing is achieved by assigning random answers to standard categories. Open questionnaires, along with merits (obtaining detailed information about the subject, conducting qualitative analysis answers) also have certain disadvantages: the complexity of formalizing the answers and their assessments, difficulties in interpreting the results, the cumbersome procedure and the large expenditure of time

The form of answers in personality questionnaires can also be presented in the form of a scale of measurements. In this case, it is assumed that certain statements are assessed according to the severity of the quality laid down by the scale (for example, difficult - easy, good - bad) Usually, three-, five- and seven-point scales are used.The subject should note the degree of severity of the assessed quality.

Examples of personality questionnaires:

Most famous example personality questionnaire is a multi-stage personality questionnaire Minnesota State (MMPI). This test is not only one of the most widely used personality questionnaires, but also the source of an extensive stream of research. The content of the tasks (questions) of the MMPI questionnaire broadly covers such areas as health, sexual, religious, political and social relations, issues of education, work, family and marriage, as well as the most famous neurotic and psychotic types of behavior, such as manic states, hallucinations, phobias, as well as sadistic and masochistic inclinations.

MMPI consists of 550 affirmative statements, to which the subject gives the answer "true", "incorrect" or "cannot tell."

Another example of personality questionnaires is the self-actualized test (CAT) developed by M. Croz under the guidance of L. Ya. Gozman. As a key category in the development of the test, the category of personality self-actualization is proposed, which, according to the author of the test, "acts as an operational analogue of personal maturity." judgments of a value or behavioral nature, describing various attitudes and features of a person's relationship to the world, other people and to himself The subject's task is to choose from two judgments the one "which is more consistent with his ideas or habitual way of behavior."

The study of personality in terms of age is determined by the circumstances that its structure develops gradually, its constituents to a large extent determine the success and difficulties of the child in learning, the characteristics of his behavior.

a) Mooney's Problem Checklist. It is designed to identify problems in a group discussion or in one-to-one counseling. This methodology is formed on the basis of the analysis of written statements of problems of almost 4,000 high school students, medical records, conversations during counseling and other sources. The methodology has four forms, designed for middle school students, high school students, college students and adults, respectively. The forms for high school and college students include such issues as health and physical development, income and living conditions, social activities and employment, socio-psychological and personal relationships, entertainment, courtship, sex, marriage, home, family, morality and religion. attitudes towards school, future (work or continuing education), study programs and teaching methods.

b) Cattell's 16-factor personality questionnaire (16 PF). Variants of this questionnaire were developed for schoolchildren from 12 to 18 years old (personality questionnaire for middle and high school), from 8 to 12 years old (personality questionnaire for primary school). The original form of this questionnaire gives 16 indicators of such personality traits as isolation and openness, modesty and self-confidence, timidity and enterprise, gullibility and suspicion.

Questionnaires - questionnaires.

Questionnaires - questionnaires serve to obtain any information about a person that is not directly related to him psychological characteristics(for example, to obtain data on the history of his life) They assume a rigidly fixed order, content and form of questions, a clear indication of the form of answers. Answers can be given by the respondents alone with themselves (correspondence survey), or in the presence of the experimenter (direct survey). Questionnaires are classified primarily by the content and structure of the questions asked. There are questionnaires with open questions (the respondent speaks in free form), questionnaires with closed questions (all answer options are provided in advance) and questionnaires with half-closed questions (the respondent can choose an answer from the ones given or give his own). In questionnaires, all options are often combined: open, closed, semi-closed. This increases the validity and completeness of the information.

Before starting the questionnaire, the experimenter should have answers to the following questions:

1) whether the requirements for the respondent's language are met (maybe for one language it is too difficult, for another, on the contrary, it is primitive);

2) are all questions and answer options clear;

3) whether there is a danger to tire the respondent;

4) is there a danger of getting mostly socially desirable or stereotyped responses;

5) are there too many options for answering the question;

6) whether everything is in order on the part of the graphic design of the questionnaire, whether there are no transfers in the semantic pieces (for example, to another page), whether the text of instructions, questions and answers are clearly printed (V.A.Yadov).

Among the questionnaires-questionnaires for psychodiagnostic purposes, biographical questionnaires are widely used, designed to obtain information about the history of a person's life. Most often, these questions relate to age, health status, marital status, level and nature of education, special skills, career advancement and other relatively objective indicators. They help gather the information needed to reliably interpret test scores.

State and mood questionnaires.

State and mood questionnaires - a group of questionnaires designed to diagnose temporary, transient states (moods), as opposed to stable, relatively stable parameters measured using personality questionnaires. Characteristic feature is that the content of the tasks, as well as the instructions for the test, indicate the need to answer the questions (statements) in accordance with the present, taking place at a given time, and not with ordinary feelings, relationships, experiences.

Diagnostics is carried out on the basis of information that the examinee reports about himself (ex: self-description, self-assessment, etc.).

Assignments are presented in the form of questions or statements.

I. Questionnaires-antiketa - are aimed at finding out information about the subject that is not directly related to his personality.

Biographical method - allows you to get data about the history of a person's life.

Often in such questionnaires one can find questions - the interests of a person.

II. Personality questionnaires - measure various personality traits.

Problems of using personality questionnaires:

Formulation of questions.

The question should be related to the problem.

The answer depends on the wording of the question.

Wording requirements:

1) Understanding, i.e. every question should be clear from the first reading.

2) Avoiding ambiguity... Absence in questions of words or phrases that have a double or ambiguous meaning.

3) Abstractness... Each item of the questionnaire should be formulated with the same level of abstractness. If the question is formulated too specifically, then the subject, who did not have a similar situation, will not be able to answer.

If it is too abstract, then each will respond to his own (to his situation, etc.).

4) Focus on personal experience... Each question should be is aimed at the client's personal experience (ex: would you jump into the water, not being able to swim, if a person drowns?)

5) Questions should be socially neutral whenever possible... Should not contain social standards. behavior.

6) Questions should not be suggestive, i.e. do not have to suggest a definite answer.

7) Questions should not contain stereotyped wording.

8) Questions d.b. both forward and backward... Direct question - the answer assumes the presence of a measurable property; the opposite question - the answer assumes a lack of quality.

Closed questionnaires are often used to restrict imagination and for ease of processing.

The problem of interpretation of answers.

When using questionnaires, there is often a tendency to give socially desirable responses.

Edwards called this trend “ facade effect"- the desire to look good in the eyes of other people.

Reasons for the effect:

The person does not know himself well enough;

Cheats at his own expense;

Doesn't want to admit his limitations.

Thurstone : The strength of the social desirability of the answer is associated with a more general human need for self-defense, social. approval, desire to avoid criticism.

A person can also intentionally or unintentionally degrade his image (for pity, the need for attention, help, etc.).

This effect is found in those questions that describe "good" or "bad" personality traits, norms of behavior.

Socially approved responses are present when the subject establishes a connection between his own well-being and the answer to the question.

To measure social. desirability are used control scales .

A set of control scales:

Ex: MMPY (Minisot Multi-Aspect Personality Questionnaire) - about 500 questions.

4 control scales:

1. Scale of questions - takes into account the number of items on the questionnaire that the subject leaves unanswered.

There is a certain critical number. Exceeding this number means that further processing is meaningless, since this means that the subject: 1) is not motivated or 2) the level of his development does not correspond to the necessary one.

2. Scale of lies - assessment of trends towards socially desirable responses.

Includes questions that provide an unambiguous answer (everyday situations that may seem condemned by morality).

Pr: Sometimes I feel like swearing.

I don't always tell the truth.

There is a critical number, exceeding which means that further processing does not make sense, because the person is focused on socially desirable responses, and in other responses, the person can also distort reality.

(critical number ≈ half of the responses on this scale).

3. Validity scale - analysis of the tendency to deliberate or unconscious deterioration of the survey results.

It contains questions concerning the peculiarities of the physical and mental spheres, which are rarely found in clinical practice, but in everyday consciousness they seem to be signs of disorders and diseases.

If the score is high, it could mean:

Suspiciousness, suggestibility, hypochondriacia, etc.

Inattention, superficiality in work, random answers.

A tendency to give eccentric answers.

Ex: I have nightmares every night.

At times I feel like I'm dying

etc.

4. Correction scale - is aimed at studying the opposite tendency: deliberate or unconscious improvement of the survey results.

A high score may mean that the subject is trying to smooth out the impression of himself; m. the manifestation of a protective reaction; trying to sound good.

Poor results → excessive honesty, self-criticism, or a deliberate attempt to appear bad.

What to do with high rates?

1. Re-examination.

2. Use other methods (which are less subject to social desirability).

TYPES OF PERSONAL QUESTIONNAIRES:

1. Personality traits questionnaires - developed on the basis of identifying personality traits.

When constructing a questionnaire, personality traits are grouped (using factor analysis).

(ex: 16PF Cattell).

2. Typological questionnaires - developed on the basis of identifying personality types as holistic formations that are not limited to a set of features.

When designing, the subjects themselves are grouped, and not the signs (using cluster analysis)

(ex: MMPY)

3. Diagnostics of motives - are intended for diagnostics of the motivational-need-sphere of the personality and allow to establish the direction of the personality's activity.

(ex: Approximate questionnaire Kucher-Smekhov - studies the orientation of the personality).

4. Diagnostics of interests - designed to measure / diagnose interests.

Ex. 1: Strong. Prof. interests - identifies 4 parameters of interests:

1) the similarity of the client's interests with the interests of persons who have achieved success in a particular profession;

2) the similarity of the subject's interests with typically male or typically female interests;

3) the degree of maturity of interests;

4) the degree of prof. preparation.

Ex. 2: Klimov's differential diagnostic questionnaire - determines a person's tendency to choose a profession of a certain type.

Ex. 3: Golomstock's map of interests - highlights a person's inclination to a certain profession.

5. Values questionnaires - are aimed at studying the value orientations of the individual.

Ex: Rokeach's Value Orientation Questionnaire.

Senin. Terminal Values Questionnaire.

6. Installation questionnaires - are intended to determine the orientation of the subject in some kind of continuum of attitudes.

Content

1. Types of personality questionnaires

2. Psychosemantic methods of personality diagnostics

"Subjective" approach - diagnostics is carried out on the basis of data that the subject reports about himself, self-descriptions of personality traits, behavior in specific situations. These are a variety of questionnaires.

Personality questionnaires (standardized self-reports) are a set of methodological tools used to identify and assess individual properties and manifestations of personality.

To date, a huge number of personality questionnaires of various types have been created. When developing personality questionnaires, differences in approach are manifested in the formulation, layout, selection and grouping of questions.

All the variety of personality questionnaires can be classified as follows: 1) typological questionnaires; 2) questionnaires of personality traits; 3) questionnaires of motives; 4) questionnaires of interests; 5) questionnaires of values; 6) questionnaires of attitudes (attitudes).

1. Typological questionnaires of personality

In different theories of personality, a different number of its specific characteristics are postulated, which have individual expression. The term "line" is often used to denote them. Large in volume and more heterogeneous in comparison with the trait is the concept of "type". The personality type is viewed as a holistic formation, not reducible to a set of traits. The concept of "type" is distinguished by a higher level of generalization and performs the function of categorizing personality traits into larger units that are directly related to the observed models of human behavior. Types are combinations of meaningful personality characteristics, between which there are natural and necessary connections, "complexes" (G. Murray), "agreed patterns" (S. Maddy).

The typological approach is the basis for the development of typological personality questionnaires. Here, the personality type not only determines the characteristics of the questionnaire, but also acts as a way of generalizing diagnostic data, and also assumes the grouping of the examined according to the degree of similarity, proximity in the space of personal characteristics. When using this type of questionnaire, the diagnosis is made on the basis of comparing individual results with the corresponding (average) personality types presented in the questionnaire, and determining the degree of their similarity.

When developing this group of questionnaires, authors can rely on the theories of personality they have and support, using the classifications of types presented there. Another approach is also possible, when the creators of the questionnaires act empirically, without any theoretical basis. This is how the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was developed (in the last way). Its authors S. Hethway and J. McKinley , year of creation – 1941 g.

Close to MMPI in terms of content is the Questionnaire of H. Shmishek , designed to diagnose accentuated personality types. It is based on the concept of "accentuated personalities" by K. Leonhard. According to this concept, personality traits can be divided into two groups: basic and additional. The main features are much less, but they are the core of the personality, determine its development, adaptation and mental health. With a high degree of severity of the main features, they leave an imprint on the personality as a whole and with unfavorable social conditions can destroy its structure.

Individuals with basic traits high degree expressiveness, named by K. Leonhard accentuated. Accentuated personalities are not pathological. “With a different interpretation,” K. Leonhard thinks, “we would have to come to the conclusion that only the average person should be considered normal, and any deviation from such a mean (average norm) should be recognized as pathology. This would force us to take out of the norm those individuals who, by their originality, clearly stand out against the background of the average level. However, in this case, this category of people would also fall into this category of people about whom they speak of "personality" in a positive sense, emphasizing that "they have a pronounced original mental make-up."

On the basis of his concept, K. Leonhard identified 10 main types of accentuated personalities, mainly corresponding to the systematics of psychopathies in borderline psychiatry.

Demonstrative type. The central feature of a demonstrative personality is the need for self-expression, a constant desire to impress, attract interest, be in the center everyone's attention... The elements of behavior of this type of personality are self-praise, stories about oneself or about events in which this personality occupied a central place. A large proportion of these stories are actually either fantasies or heavily embellished narratives.

Pedantic type. The pronounced external manifestations of people of this type of personality are increased accuracy, desire for order, indecision and caution. Before doing anything, these people think about everything for a long time and carefully. Obviously, behind the external pedantry lies the unwillingness and inability to make quick changes, to accept responsibility. These people do not needlessly change their place of work, and if it is required, then they hardly go to the upcoming changes. They love their production, their usual work. In everyday life, they are characterized by conscientiousness.

Stuck type. This type of personality is characterized by a high stability of affect, the duration of emotional experiences. Insulting personal interests and dignity, as a rule, is not forgotten for a long time and is never easily forgiven. In this regard, others often characterize people of this type as vindictive and vindictive. There are reasons for this: the experience of affect is often combined with fantasizing, nurturing a plan for a response to the offender, revenge on him.

Excitable type. A feature of people of this type of personality is the extremely pronounced impulsivity of behavior. The manner of their communication and interaction with people largely depends not on logic, not on the rational assessment of other people and their actions and actions, but is conditioned by impulse, attraction, instinct or uncontrollable impulses. In the area of social interaction, they are characterized by extremely low tolerance, which can often be characterized as a lack of tolerance at all.

Hyperthymic type. The main pronounced feature of people of this personality type is the constant stay in an elevated emotional mood, even despite the absence of any external reasons for this. Their high spirits are combined with high activity, thirst for activity. They are characterized by sociability, increased talkativeness. Such people always look at life optimistically, without losing optimism even when difficulties and life obstacles arise. People of this type often overcome difficulties without much difficulty due to their naturally inherent activity and activity orientation.

Dysthymic type. Dysthymic personality is the opposite of hyperthymic personality. Dysthymics tend to focus on the dark, sad sides of life and the negative outcomes. This manifests itself in everything: in behavior, in communication, in the peculiarities of the perception of life, its individual events and other people. Usually these people are serious by nature. Activity, and even more so hyperactivity, is not at all peculiar to them.

Anxious type. Main feature this type of personality is increased anxiety, concern about possible failures, negatively manifested concern for their own fate and the fate of their loved ones. At the same time, there may be no objective reasons for such anxiety or they are insignificant. People of this type are distinguished by their shyness, sometimes with a manifestation of submissiveness to circumstances. Constant vigilance in front of external circumstances is combined with insecurity in their abilities.

Cyclothymic type. A pronounced feature of people of this personality type is the constant change of hyperthymic and dysthymic states. Moreover, such changes are not only frequent, but also not accidental. In the hyperthymic phase, the behavior of these people is typical - joyful events cause not only positive emotions, but also a thirst for activity, increased activity, talkativeness. Sad events cause not only grief in these people, but also depression. In this state, they are characterized by a slowdown in reactions, experiences and thinking, a slowdown and decrease in emotional responsiveness, the ability to empathize and sympathy.

Exalted type. The main feature of this type of personality is a bright exalted reaction. People of this type easily get overwhelmed by joyful events and deepest despair from sad events. They are distinguished by their extreme susceptibility to both positive and sad events and facts. At the same time, internal impressionability and experience are combined in people of this type with a vivid external expression.

Emotive type. The most important feature of an emotive personality is a high sensitivity and depth of experience in the field of subtle emotions generated in the sphere of a person's spiritual life. People of this type are characterized by kindness, kindness, sincerity, emotional responsiveness, and highly developed empathy. All these features, as a rule, are clearly visible and constantly appear in external reactions and in various situations. A characteristic feature of this personality type is increased tearfulness ("eyes in a wet place"). If the exalted type of personality is characterized as "stormy, impetuous, excited", then this - emotive type - as "sensitive and impressionable."

The very personal questionnaire of H. Shmishek includes a list of questions addressed to various attitudes and characteristics of a person's relationship to the world, to other people, to himself. According to the instructions, the subject must express his opinion on each question by answering either "yes" or "no". When processing the results of the questionnaire, the answers of the subject, in accordance with the key, are distributed among ten personality types. These results are raw scores. In addition, coefficients have been developed for each of the ten personality types. In the final form, the raw scores are converted to totals by multiplying them by the appropriate coefficients. The critical value of the final indicator, which makes it possible to characterize the subject as an accentuated personality of a certain type, lies in the range above 14 points (the maximum value that can be obtained for each of the personality types is 24 points).

When using this questionnaire, it should be borne in mind that it does not have a scale of lies. Therefore, special additional actions diagnostician to obtain reliable results: the manifestation of maximum attention at the instructing stage to identify possible negative attitudes of the subject for examination, creating an atmosphere of benevolence and a serious attitude to work.

2. Questionnaires of personality traits

This approach to the creation and use of personality questionnaires is implemented on the basis of identifying personality traits. It is based on the assumption of the existence of a finite set of basic personal qualities, and differences between people are determined within the framework of this approach by the degree of expression of these qualities. Traits unite groups of closely related personality traits. The number of traits determines the dimension of personal space.

Traits are understood as a sequence of behavior, habits, or a tendency to repeat behavioral manifestations. They are hierarchically organized, their top level is formed by factors. The factors have many different behavioral manifestations, are relatively stable (constant over time, with the usual conditions of life unchanged), are reproduced in various studies and are socially significant. Sometimes factors are called basic, or universal, traits.

To be able to predict human behavior in a wide class of possible situations, psychologists seek to measure basic or universal traits. These features are, as a rule, among the most general structural and dynamic characteristics of the style of activity.

The first attempt, aimed at isolating traits and constructing a personality system from them, was undertaken by staff at the University of Illinois under the leadership of RB Cattell in the development of a group of multivariate personality questionnaires.

In an effort to achieve a systematic classification of personality traits, R. Cattell undertook an innovative application of the method of factor analysis to the development of personality questionnaires. A characteristic feature of R. Cattell's approach is the attitude to factor analysis not as a way to reduce the dimension of data, but as a method for identifying basic, causal personality traits.

To obtain comprehensive information about the characteristics of behavior, R. Cattell analyzed all the names of personality traits that were in the dictionary compiled by G. Allport and H. Odbert in 1936. There were 4.5 thousand such words. R. Cattell reduced this list to 171 synonymous groups, designating each with one word that most accurately reflects the main content of the corresponding feature. Then a sample of 100 adults was assessed by experts (close friends of each) for each of the 171 variables. The list of variables was then reduced by experts' selection of the most significant features to 36 names. Adding 10 terms borrowed from other researchers to them, R. Cattell obtained behavioral assessments of another 208 people from a shortened list. Factor analysis of these assessments led him to create what has been called "the primary source of personality traits." On its basis, a questionnaire was developed.Sixteen personality factors (Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire – 16 PF) , consisting of a large number of items (187) concerning life situations... For each one, one of three answers should be given - "yes", "no", "I do not know." The questionnaire is intended for people aged 16 and over.

Using this questionnaire, you can evaluate each subject for each of the 16 factors. Each of them is designated by letters Latin alphabet and has a common and technical name. Both everyday and technical names of factors are given in bipolar form and are accompanied by a list of the most significant behavioral manifestations. In addition, an interpretation is given for each factor. The results obtained are expressed in walls with a maximum value of 10 and an average of 5.5. Then a personality profile is built, in the analysis of which they are guided by the severity of each factor in comparison with the norms (4-7).

In addition to the listed factors of the first order, R. Cattell, as a result of further factorization, identified more general factors of the second order. In different works there were from 4 to 8. The most significant and often repeated were "exvia - invia" (extraversion - introversion) and "anxiety - fitness".

R. Cattell's approach to personality diagnostics was criticized for pronounced empiricism, neglect of any initial theoretical ideas about the content of the personality traits being determined, small size and non-representativeness of the standardization sample. Claims to the questionnaire, first of all, boil down to indications of low retest reliability and homogeneity of individual scales, and there is also a low reproducibility of factors.

In addition to the basic scales, R. Cattell developed forms for examining persons with different educational level, as well as questionnaires for children and adolescents. Currently, the fifth edition of the 16 PF questionnaire (1993-1994) has appeared, for which new standards have been established on a sample representative of the adult population of the United States, and the indicators of homogeneity and retest reliability are higher than in earlier editions. In addition, the new questionnaire allows for the assessment of some characteristics of the response style, such as compliance, choosing answers at random and trying to misrepresent oneself as having socially desirable or undesirable qualities.

Several adaptations of the 16 PF questionnaire are known to domestic practice. The most consistent work on his psychometric qualifications is carried out by the psychologists of Moscow State University.

Along with the questionnaire "Sixteen personality factors" in domestic practice, adaptations of R. Cattell's questionnaires for children aged 8-12 years (Children Personality Questionnaire - CPQ) and for high school students (High School Personality Questionnaire - HSPQ) are used. executed by E. M. Aleksandrovskaya and I. N. Gilyasheva. The disadvantages of these questionnaires are the same as the original versions, they are indicated above.

In the 90s. XX century. A. G. Shmelev with co-authors, relying on the 16 PF questionnaire and the Atlas of personality traits for the Russian language, developed the Sixteen Russian-language factors questionnaire (16 RF), which is the first universal multifactorial domestic method that allows assessing the personality profile taking into account the specifics of the Russian-language culture. Collection of normative data and analysis of psychometric characteristics for this questionnaire is ongoing.

Low reproducibility of data and insufficient stability of traits assessed using R. Cattell's questionnaires stimulated attempts by psychologists to identify fewer factors that would be more consistent and universal. The most famous were the works of V. Norman and his followers, begun in the 60s. and led to the allocation of the so-called "big five". Their approach was similar to that of R. Cattell, who began with complete list names of personality traits, and then shortened it through various procedures. The development of the 5-factor approach can be traced back to the early works of L. Thurstone (1934), D. Faysk (1949), but usually V. Norman is considered the father of the “big five”.

The original model contained the following traits: extraversion, neuroticism, compliance, conscientiousness, and culture. Later, "culture" was replaced by "openness to experience" (or "intellectual freedom"). These 5 factors have not always been replicated in studies. According to G. Eysenck, this is due to the fact that the “big five” mixes factors of the first (compliance, conscientiousness, and openness to experience) and second order.

Therefore, he proposed a 3-factor model, represented by factors of the highest level. These are extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism. To diagnose the first two, he created the EPI (Eysenck Personality Invektory) questionnaire. Developed in 1964, it contained 57 questions, 24 of which revealed extraversion - introversion, 24 - neuroticism - emotional stability. Another 9 questions made up the scale of lies. The questionnaire has two parallel forms. The subject had to answer the questions "yes" or "no".

When interpreting the results, G. Eysenck considered the measured characteristics as traits of temperament that are closely related to the physiological characteristics of a person. He interpreted the main content of the extraversion - introversion factor as openness - the closedness of the subject to external influences. At the same time, his behavioral manifestations were described quite widely: for extraversion characterized by craving for new impressions, relaxed forms of behavior, increased impulsivity, high motor and speech activity, sociability, optimism; for introversion characterized by focus on oneself, inhibition of movements and speech, isolation, a weak craving for new impressions, the predominance of a bad mood.

The neuroticism scale reflects various characteristics of the emotional sphere: emotional lability, sensitivity, and anxiety.

In 1975 G. Eysenck supplemented the questionnaire with a new scale - the scale of psychoticism, which is aimed at identifying the individual's propensity to resist social influences. New EPQ Questionnaire (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire) in our country is not widely used. The EPI questionnaire was first adapted at the Institute of Psychoneurology. V. M. Bekhterev in 1970-1974 A later modification was undertaken by VM Rusalov (1992) at the Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He made an attempt to improve the psychometric properties of the questionnaire by reformulating or replacing individual items, and also obtained norms on a fairly representative sample.

The EPI questionnaire is widely used in domestic psychological practice - in sports, medicine, and also in psychological research.

3. Personality questionnaires of motivation

In addition to questionnaires that diagnose personality types, complexes of personality traits, in psychodiagnostic practice, to date, it has been developed big number techniques focused on identifying and assessing individual personality traits. Numerous questionnaires of personality motives are an example of them.

In the structure of personality, motivation occupies a special place and is the main, generic concept used to explain driving forces human behavior and activities.

So far, the theoretical certainty and unambiguousness of views on the phenomenon of motivation have not yet been achieved. The term "motivation" explains a wide range of ambiguously interpreted phenomena, such as need, need, motive, motivation, etc.

In the broadest sense, motivation determines the bias, selectivity and ultimate purposefulness of mental reflection and the activity regulated by it, and in the everyday sense it explains why a living creature prefers to do one thing and not another. In Russian literature, the motive is understood as a conscious need (A. G. Kovalev), and as an object of need (A. N. Leont'ev), and is identified with a need (P. S. Simonov).

List of personal preferences of A. Edwards (Edwards Personal Preference Schedule) is a questionnaire that measures the strength of needs borrowed from the list proposed by G. Murray for TAT. This list was reduced to 15 and included the following needs: achievement, respect, order, self-expression, autonomy, assistance, inner analysis, help, leadership, humiliation, caring, change, patience, the individual of the opposite sex, aggressiveness. For each of the 15 scales of the questionnaire, indicators of needs were identified, which are formulated in the form of statements (a total of 210 pairs of statements). The questionnaire is built on the basis of a forced choice of one of a pair of statements. The final index of need expresses not the absolute strength of the need, but the strength of this need relative to other needs from the list. A. Edward used the method of forced choice in order to reduce the influence of the factor of social desirability. The indicators of each of the scales are assessed both in percentiles and in norms for T-scores. These norms were established on a sample of students (1,500 people) and adults (about 10,000 people). The reliability indicators are satisfactory, and the data are contradictory regarding the validity, which is explained by the specifics of the questionnaire, which assesses the strength of each need not in absolute units, but relative to the strength of the other needs of the individual. With such an assessment, the normative sample cannot serve as a starting point.

Achievement motivation questionnaire (Resultant Achievement Motivation Test – RAM) A.. Mehrabiana. Modification of A. Mehrabian's test-questionnaire for measuring achievement motivation, proposed by M.Sh. Magomed-Eminov. The test questionnaire for measuring achievement motivation is designed to diagnose two generalized stable personality motives, the motivation for striving for success and the motive for avoiding failure. At the same time, it is assessed which of these two motives dominates in the subject.

Motivation for achievement, according to G. Murray, is expressed in the need to overcome obstacles and achieve high performance in work, self-improve, compete with others and get ahead of them, realize their talents and thereby increase self-esteem.

Achievement motivation is one of the types of activity motivation associated with the individual's need to achieve success and avoid failure. The formation of motivation for success or for avoiding failure depends on the conditions of upbringing and the environment, as well as:

1) personal standards (assessments of the subjective probability of success, the subjective difficulty of the task);

2) the attractiveness of self-esteem (the attractiveness for the individual of personal success or failure in this activity);

3) individual preferences of the type of attribution (attributing responsibility for success or failure to oneself or the surrounding circumstances).

The technique is used for research purposes in diagnosing achievement motivation in senior schoolchildren and students.

The test is a questionnaire that has two forms: male (form A) and female (form B).

4. Personality questionnaires of interests

In psychology, interests are understood as a form of manifestation of a cognitive need, which ensures the orientation of the individual towards understanding the goals of activity. and thereby contributing to orientation, familiarization of the individual with new facts, a deeper and more complete reflection of reality.

The measurement of interests began with relatively narrow and very specific tasks of studying personality. The first questionnaires of interest were focused mainly on predicting whether an individual would take on a particular job or refuse it. A comparative study of individual groups of subjects differing in their behavior revealed a significant discrepancy between professional interests and other aspects of personality. From the first turns to the measurement of interests, the researchers drew attention to the fact that the answers of an individual to direct questions about his interests are often an unreliable method of identifying and assessing them. Analysis of the results of applying this direct method allowed us to draw two important conclusions:

1) most people have limited information about various activities and therefore are not able to judge whether they will like the activity offered in the direct questionnaire;

2) the individual is rarely deeply aware of his interests in various fields of activity.

This ignorance exists until he gets the opportunity to try himself in this or that kind of activity. It may turn out that this opportunity came so late that it is no longer possible to draw a positive conclusion from it. Let's consider some of the most interesting questionnaires of interests.

F. Kuder's questionnaires are widely distributed abroad. The first of them is F. Kuder's Protocol of Professional Preferences (Kuder Preference Record- Vocational) consists of items requiring a forced choice from three activities of topics that the subject likes most or least of all. The indicators reflect interests not in specific professions, but in 10 broad areas of activity. These are outdoor work, work with machines and mechanisms, calculations and calculations, scientific work, fine arts, literature, music, social services, clerical work, educational activities.

As a result of the revision and expansion of the age range, Kyuder's Outline of Common Interests emerged. (Kuder General Interest Survey), designed for students in grades VI-XII. An even more recent version - Kuder's Review of Professional Interests (Kuder Occupational Interest Survey) – gives indicators of interests in specific professions (109 professions and specializations and 40 specializations in colleges). These indicators are expressed in the form of correlations between the patterns of interests of the subject and the patterns of interests of professional groups. Along with this, indicators of interest in 10 broad, homogeneous groups of professions can be obtained (as in the Protocol). The described questionnaires of interests are not used in our country. In domestic practice, for the purpose of vocational guidance, the Table is widely used to roughly determine the preferred type of future specialty E.A. Klimova and Rough-diagnostic questionnaire of interests of S. Ya. Karpilovskaya (ODANI) . The first of these questionnaires was developed on the basis of a typology of professions based on the principle of a person's attitude to various objects of the surrounding world. Five types of professions are distinguished: man-nature, man-technology, man-symbolic system, man-artistic image, man-man. The paragraphs of the table reflect the occupations corresponding to these professions, as well as the success of these occupations as assessed by the individual and those around him. The indicators assess the expression of interests in each of the five types of professions.

ODANI includes questions corresponding to 15 interest groups in different areas of knowledge and activities that the student could get acquainted with at school and in Everyday life... Among them are physics, mathematics, biology, art, pedagogy, the sphere of consumer services, etc. The questionnaire allows not only to assess the comparative expression of interests, but also to establish the level and depth of interests.

The methodology is intended for selection for various types of professions in accordance with the classification of types of professions by E.A. Klimov. Can be used for career guidance for adolescents and adults. The test subject must select only one type in each of the 20 pairs of proposed activities and put a "+" sign in the corresponding cell of the answer sheet. The examination time is not limited. Although, the subject should be warned that the questions should not be thought about for a long time and usually it takes 20-30 minutes to complete the task.

5. Questionnaires of personal values

Since the 60s. XX century. interest in measuring values and value orientations began to grow. In psychology, the term "values" refers to the qualities or properties of objects that make them useful, desirable, or valued. The value of an object for the subject is determined by its role in social interaction. Social values (objects, phenomena, relationships) form central principles around which individual and social goals are integrated. Classic examples of values are freedom, justice, education, love, friendship, etc. Values are associated with lifestyle choices and are often viewed alongside interests, attitudes, and preferences. The concept of "value orientations" expresses the positive or negative significance for the individual of objects and phenomena of social reality and constitutes the internal basis of a person's relationship to various values of the material, moral, political and spiritual order. Techniques designed to diagnose values and value orientations are very different in their methodology, content, specific goals, but they are very similar to measures for assessing interests and attitudes. Some value questionnaires also overlap with questionnaires measuring other personality traits. An example of the methodology of this class is the Methodology of Value Orientations by M. Rokich (Rokeach Value Survey – RVS), widely used in domestic psychodiagnostic practice. Its adaptation for a domestic sample of adults was performed by A.G. Goshtautas, N.A.Semenov, and V.A.Yadov.

Another technique of the group under consideration, which is widely used in domestic practice and research, is the Life Meaningful Orientation Test (LSS). It is an adaptation of a similar methodology "Purpose in Life" (Purpose in Life Test) J. Crumbaugh and L. Maholica, which was performed at Moscow State University by D. A. Leontiev.

The test "Meaningful life orientations" (method of LSS) by D.A. components of life. The LSS test is an adapted version of the Goal in Life test ( Purpose-in-Life Test, PIL) James Crumbaugh and Leonard Maholick. The methodology was developed on the basis of the theory of striving for meaning and logotherapy by Viktor Frankl and pursued the goal of empirical validation of a number of representations from this theory. Based on the factor analysis of the version of this technique adapted by D.A. locus of control (locus of control-I and locus of control-life). The LSS test contains 20 pairs of opposite statements, reflecting the idea of the factors of meaningfulness in the life of an individual. In the LSS test, life is considered meaningful in the presence of goals, satisfaction obtained in achieving them and confidence in one's own ability to set goals for oneself, choose tasks from cash, and achieve results. It is important to clearly correlate goals with the future, emotional saturation with the present, satisfaction with the achieved result, the past.

The situation provides each person with the opportunity to make a certain choice in the present in the form of an act, action or inaction. The basis for such a choice is a formed idea of the meaning of life or its absence. The totality of carried out, actualized choices forms the “past”, which is invariable, only its interpretation is subject to variations. The "future" is a set of potential, expected results of efforts made in the present, in this regard, the future is fundamentally open, and different options the expected future have different motivating attractions.

6. Personality questionnaires of attitudes

The concept of "setting" in psychology is often defined as a pronounced orientation of the individual to respond positively or negatively to a certain class of stimuli, situations, events. Obviously, attitudes cannot be observed directly, but can be deduced from external observation, both verbal and non-verbal. In life practice, the term "attitude" is most often associated with social events and with emotionally colored responses of the individual to these events. Very often the term "attitude" is replaced by the term "opinion", and the two concepts are used interchangeably. At the same time, the relationship between what a person says and what he does, between publicly expressed attitudes and their private expression, between attitudes that appear in difficult (critical) situations, can be considered as a special case validity. Attitude scales and opinion polls can be valid for a variety of criteria, such as:

- the attitude of the individual to opposite social groups;

- his assessment by close friends;

- biographical data obtained during the conversation with the subject;

- medical history, etc.

But because of the practical difficulties in obtaining such criterion data, researchers and method developers often turn to more familiar methods as palliative measures, for example, validity for internal consistency or correlation with other scales of attitudes and opinions.

To quantify the relative position of an individual in a one-dimensional continuum of attitudes, attitude scales were created. For the first time L. Thurstone together with E. Chave (1959) applied psychological questionnaires to quantify opinion data. This was an important milestone in the construction of scales of attitudes. Construction of scales of the Terstone type (Thurstone- type attitude scales) can be illustrated by the example of a scale for measuring attitudes towards the church.

In the first stage, a large number of statements about the church are collected: different groups of people are invited to state their views on the church in writing. This list is complemented by sayings about the church taken from modern literature. The statements are then categorized as evaluating the church as "extremely favorable" - "neutral" - "extremely unfavorable." From the material thus collected, a list of 130 carefully edited brief statements was compiled.

Each of these selected statements was then printed on separate cards, which were handed out to 300 experts to be categorized under 11 headings, designated by the letters of the Latin alphabet from "A" to "K". Panelists were asked to place in the “A” pile the statements that they felt gave the church the highest rating; in the “G” pile - statements expressing a neutral attitude towards it; pile "L" - statements expressing complete rejection of the church. In the intermediate piles between these letters, cards with statements about the church were to be folded, according to the degree of their benevolent or negative attitude towards the church expressed in them.

The percentage of experts who put statements in different piles served as the initial data for calculating the scale price of statements, which can be reflected on a special graph. On the horizontal axis (abscissa) of the graph, according to the number of headings from A to K, numbers from 1 to 11 are located, interpreted as equally distributed units of measurement. The vertical axis (ordinate axis) gives the percentage of experts who assigned this judgment to this heading or below, to the left of it. The 50 percentile, or median position attributed by experts to this statement, is marked directly on the graph. The individual responding to the Thurstone-type attitudes scales marks all statements with which he agrees. An individual indicator of the type and severity of his attitude is the median scale price of the marked statements.

R. Likert proposed a different approach to constructing the scales of attitudes. in 1932. It does not require a task classification by a group of experts. Tasks are selected based on the responses of the subjects of the standardization sample according to the criterion of internal consistency.

In addition, Likert scales (Likert- type attitude scales) require a grading of each statement, usually into five categories:

- I completely agree;

- agree;

- not sure;

- I do not agree;

- totally disagree.

Each answer option has its own quantitative assessment. The sum of points for all tasks is an indicator of the individual, which is compared with the norms. When constructing scales of attitudes, other methods are also used, in particular, the method of forced choice or paired comparisons. An example of a questionnaire aimed at identifying various attitudes and attitudes of a person to the world, other people, to himself is developed at Moscow State University by M. Croz under the guidance of L. Ya. Gozman, Personal Maturity Questionnaire.

The category of personal maturity is identified in this questionnaire using a diagnostic assessment of a number of personal characteristics of the subject, such as competence in time, value orientations, flexibility of behavior, sensitivity, self-esteem, self-acceptance, creativity, etc., considered as characteristics of personal maturity.

The questionnaire itself consists of a list containing 126 items, each of which includes two alternative judgments of a value or behavioral nature, describing various attitudes and characteristics of a person's relationship to the world, other people and to himself. The subject's task is to choose from the two judgments the one that is more consistent with his ideas or his usual way of behavior. As a result of the examination, each subject receives 14 indicators of personal maturity. These indicators are applied to a special form, where they are compared with each other using a scale grid. It is considered that the subject has reached the optimal level of personal maturity if his data on the scales fall into the zone of the scale grid, located in the range of 55-66%.

Values above 70% indicate the factor of social desirability in the subject's answers and reflect his desire to appear better. Values below 40 % the scale grid testifies to the underdevelopment of the subject's personality, to the deformation of his attitudes and attitudes towards various parties reality.

This technique can be used in practice to assess the results of trainings, the impact of teaching and upbringing methods, different conditions social environment to the level of personal development of individuals.

Attitude questionnaires include techniques aimed at diagnosing self-awareness and self-attitude. The attitude to oneself, to one's own personality is one of the most important relations of the social psychological being of a person. The most developed in Russian psychology is the concept of self-awareness proposed by V.V. Stalin. Considering self-awareness as any self-description, self-knowledge or a complex of self-assessments, he defines, within the framework of his concept, self-attitude as a directly phenomenological expression of the personal meaning of the I for the subject himself. Self-attitude has its own structure, in accordance with the ideas about which two questionnaires were developed - the Self-Attitude Questionnaire (OSS) and the Self-Attitude Research Methodology (MIS).

Self-Attitude Questionnaire (OSS), authored by V.V. Stolin and S.R. Pantileev (1989), consists of 57 statements with which you need to agree or disagree. The analysis of the results is carried out according to 5 generalized scales and 7 additional ones. Additional ones are aimed at measuring the severity of the attitude towards certain internal actions towards the self of the subject. The generalized scales include the following: the S scale, which measures the integral feeling "for" or "against" one's own I; scale I, assessing self-esteem, which is an evaluative aspect of self-attitude; scale II - autosympathy, reflecting certain feelings towards oneself; scale III, reflecting the expectations of a positive or negative attitude towards oneself from others; scale IV - self-interest, - reflecting the degree of closeness to oneself, the degree of interest in one's own thoughts and feelings.

Self-attitude research methodology (MIS) developed by S.R.Pantileev , consists of 110 statements with which you need to agree or disagree. Along with highlighting two of the five general factors (aspects) of self-attitude considered above - Self-esteem and Autosympathy - it presents another factor - Self-abasement, reflecting self-accusations and internal conflicts. In addition to general factors, processing is carried out on additional (private) ones. Both questionnaires have satisfactory psychometric scores and criteria for assessing individual data (percentiles).
2. Psychosemantic methods of personality diagnostics

The processes of perception, thinking, memory and others are mediated by the system of meanings that exist in the individual consciousness in different forms(in the form of signs, symbols, images, verbal formulations).

Psychosemantic diagnostics is aimed at assessing the categorical structures of individual consciousness, at reconstructing the system of individual meanings and personal meanings, at identifying individual differences in the processes of categorization.

Semantic differential (Semantic Differential). Developed by C. Osgood and his collaborators, first as a means of researching the psychological aspects of understanding concepts, this technique very quickly began to be considered a technique for assessing personality, suitable primarily for measuring personal attitudes and attitudes towards a certain range of objects.

"Semantic differential" is a standardized technique in which the subject is presented with several seven-point scales, applied horizontally on one form (answer sheet). The ends of the scales are given by words (adjectives) having opposite meanings... Seven gradations are most often also indicated verbally, although numerical and graphic (in the form of segments) designations are possible. Each object (concept) must be evaluated on at least 15 such bipolar scales. Evaluation consists in referring to a certain pole of a scale with a certain gradation. The selected gradation should be either underlined or circled on the response form.

If you connect all the marks made by segments, then the subjective semantic profile of the projected object will be reflected on the response form, which is then analyzed.

"Semantic differential" is used to solve various practical problems:

- in the clinic;

- when consulting;

- to identify a variety of social attitudes;

- to study attitudes towards different study subjects, attitudes towards different goods and brands, etc.

This breadth of use is explained by the fact that the individual himself, his family members, friends, work colleagues, representatives of different professions, academic subjects, names of goods, different types of activities, radio and television programs, and much more can be used as the evaluated objects. In essence, the term "semantic differential" is now used to denote a whole family of techniques based on the same principles. At present, work is ongoing to improve this methodology; sophisticated statistical processing is used to analyze the results, as well as modern computer methods. Non-verbal variants of the semantic differential are developed and applied (when the poles of the scales are set by non-verbal means).

One of the modifications of the scaling techniques is the sorting techniques. An example of these techniques is Q-sort (Q- technique, Q- sort), developed by V. Stephenson for the study of the individual's ideas about himself. The individual is given a set of cards containing statements or names of personality traits. He must classify them into groups from "most characteristic" to "least characteristic" for him. The number of groups into which the subject must divide the cards, as well as the number of cards in each of them, is set by the psychologist.

Q-sort is used to solve a variety of psychological problems. Depending on them, the subject is asked to classify the cards according to the following criteria:

- in relation to oneself in various situations (for example, at home, at work, in communication with other people);

- what he really is from his point of view (real I);

- how he appears to other people (social I);

- what he would like to be (ideal self).

Such information is collected at different stages of psychotherapy to ascertain the changes that have occurred. You can distribute cards in relation to other people, which allows you to identify the subject's attitude towards them, and also use them to describe them. In the latter case, variants of Q-sorting are used to obtain a comprehensive assessment of the personality by professionally trained observers (experts), as well as to describe any category of people of interest to the psychologist (professional groups, groups with psychiatric syndromes, etc.) In addition, the principle of Q-sorting can be implemented when the subject is working with various objects. The main difficulty in the development of semantic diagnostic methods lies in the selection and unification of the meanings of words and expressions included in the lists of traits, in the inevitability of their subjective interpretation by different individuals, when even a slight shift in emphasis in the choice of vocabulary in one direction or another can lead to a change and even distortion ideas about personal knowledge inherent in an individual.

The general drawback of all the semantic methods described above is that psychologists see that due to the given - both the lists of personality traits and the subjects who need to be evaluated according to them - there are doubts about the reliability of their data. If those personality traits or bipolar scales, according to which the subject is forced to measure people, are not considered by him as essential, useful, are not primary for him to make judgments about the personality, then the diagnostic result will not adequately reflect his personal knowledge (his own theory of personality, according to expression of J. Kelly), but will be a kind of artifact.

Another semantic approach to personality diagnostics, based on the use of repertoire personal methods, is devoid of this drawback. (Repertory Grid Technique). They allow the individual to construct his own individual experience, reveal those subjective scales that the individual uses when perceiving, understanding and evaluating the world around him. Their author is the American psychologist J. Kelly. In the process of diagnosing, a matrix is built, which is filled either by the psychodiagnostician or by the subject himself. The columns of the matrix correspond to the so-called elements, which are a group of objects in relation to which the assessments of the subject are revealed. Elements are set by a psychodiagnostician and can represent a variety of objects, relationships, concepts, situations, colors, professions, academic disciplines and so on, that is, everything that the psychodiagnostician seems to be essential for identifying certain assessments of a person. The lines of the matrix are constructs - the subjective scales of a person, the standards with which he approaches the construction of the image of the world around him. In the process of diagnosis, each element is evaluated for each construct.

If people act as elements, then constructs most often reflect personality traits that determine a person's attitude towards others and himself. Therefore, with the correct use of repertoire techniques, it is possible to identify the individual's ideas about people, about their most important characteristics, to build a hierarchy of personality traits in the mind of this person.

Repertoire personal techniques have been used relatively recently. They hold great promise as an effective means of personal diagnostics. This method finds more and more new supporters in different areas of practice. However, it should be remembered that, like other diagnostic tools, it will be useful only in the hands of a person who professionally owns it.

Lecture

Theme:Subjective approach in psychodiagnostics

1. Types of personality questionnaires

2. Psychosemantic methods of personality diagnostics

Personality questionnaires (standardized self-reports) are a set of methodological tools used to identify and assess individual properties and manifestations of personality.

1. Typological questionnaires of personality

In different theories of personality, a different number of its specific characteristics are postulated, which have individual expression. The term "line" is often used to denote them. Large in volume and more heterogeneous in comparison with the trait is the concept of "type". The personality type is viewed as a holistic formation, not reducible to a set of traits. The concept of "type" is distinguished by a higher level of generalization and performs the function of categorizing personality traits into larger units that are directly related to the observed models of human behavior. Types are combinations of meaningful personality characteristics, between which there are natural and necessary connections, “complexes” (G. Murray), “consistent patterns” (S. Maddy).

Close to MMPI in terms of content is the Questionnaire of H. Shmishek , designed to diagnose accentuated personality types. It is based on the concept of "accentuated personalities" by K. Leonhard. According to this concept, personality traits can be divided into two groups: basic and additional. The main features are much less, but they are the core of the personality, determine its development, adaptation and mental health. With a high degree of manifestation of the main features, they leave an imprint on the personality as a whole and, under unfavorable social conditions, can destroy its structure.

Persons in whom the main features are of a high degree of expression are called accentuated by K. Leonhard. Accentuated personalities are not pathological. “With a different interpretation,” K. Leonhard thinks, “we would have to come to the conclusion that only the average person should be considered normal, and any deviation from such a mean (average norm) should be recognized as pathology. This would force us to take out of the norm those individuals who, by their originality, clearly stand out against the background of the average level. However, in this case, this category of people would also fall into this category of people about whom they speak of "personality" in a positive sense, emphasizing that "they have a pronounced original mental make-up."

On the basis of his concept, K. Leonhard identified 10 main types of accentuated personalities, mainly corresponding to the systematics of psychopathies in borderline psychiatry.

Demonstrative type. The central feature of a demonstrative personality is the need for self-expression, a constant desire to make an impression, to attract interest, to be in the center of everyone's attention. The elements of behavior of this type of personality are self-praise, stories about oneself or about events in which this personality occupied a central place. A large proportion of these stories are actually either fantasies or heavily embellished narratives.

Anxious type. The main feature of this type of personality is heightened anxiety, concern about possible failures, negatively manifested concern for their own fate and the fate of their loved ones. At the same time, there may be no objective reasons for such anxiety or they are insignificant. People of this type are distinguished by their shyness, sometimes with a manifestation of submissiveness to circumstances. Constant vigilance in front of external circumstances is combined with insecurity in their abilities.

Cyclothymic type. A pronounced feature of people of this personality type is the constant change of hyperthymic and dysthymic states. Moreover, such changes are not only frequent, but also not accidental. In the hyperthymic phase, the behavior of these people is typical - joyful events cause not only positive emotions, but also a thirst for activity, increased activity, and talkativeness. Sad events cause not only grief in these people, but also depression. In this state, they are characterized by a slowdown in reactions, experiences and thinking, a slowdown and decrease in emotional responsiveness, the ability to empathize and sympathy.