What period of the development of human society refers to the emergence of agricultural production. The emergence of a person on earth applies to the period
Question 1. How did the activities of the primitive person affected the environment?
Already more than 1 million years ago, Peteitrocks mined food by hunting. Neanderthals used for hunting various stone guns, drove the prey collectively. Cryanonians created forces, ostrodies, kophetalki and other devices. However, all this did not contribute to serious changes in the structure of ecosystems. The impact of a person in nature intensified into the era of neolithic, when cattle breeding and agriculture began to acquire increasing importance. The man began to destroy the natural communities without providing, however, the global impact on the biosphere as a whole. Nevertheless, the unregulated grazing of livestock, as well as the reduction of forests for the sake of fuel and under the crop already at that time changed the state of many natural ecosystems.
Question 2, What period of human society development is the emergence of agricultural production?
Agriculture appeared after the end of the glaciation in the era of Neolith (the new Stone Age). Usually this period is dating 8-3 thousand years BC. e. At this time, a person domesticated several types of animals (first the dog, then unworn - pig, sheep, goat, cow, horse) and began to cultivate the first cultivated plants (wheat, barley, legumes).
Question 3. Call the reasons for the possible lack of water in a number of areas of the world.
The lack of water may arise as a result of various human actions. When the dam is erected, the change in the river bed is the redistribution of the drainage: some territory are flooded, others begin to suffer from drought. Enhanced evaporation from the surface of the reservoir leads not only to the formation of water deficiency, but also changes the climate of entire regions. Purviculture farming depletes stocks of surface and soil water. Foresting on the border with deserts contributes to the formation of new territories with a lack of water. Finally, the reasons may be a high population density, excessive needs of industry, as well as pollution of available water reserves.
Question 4. How does the Destruction of Forests affect the biosphere?
The reduction of forests catastrophically worsens the state of the biosphere as a whole. As a result of the cutting down, the surface runoff of water is enhanced, which increases the likelihood of flooding. Intensive soil erosion begins, leading to the destruction of the fertile layer and contamination of water bodies organic substances, water flowering, etc. The reduction of forests increases the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which is one of the factors of the greenhouse effect; The amount of dust is growing in the air; The danger of a gradual decrease in the amount of oxygen is relevant. The cutting of large trees destroys well-established forest ecosystems. They are replaced by much less productive biocenoses: a melancholy, swamps, semi-deserts. At the same time, dozens of plant species and animals can permanently disappear.
Currently, the main "light" of our planet is equatorial tropical forests and taiga. Both of these groups of ecosystems need extremely careful terms and protection.
Taxon-classification unit in the systematics of plant and animal organisms.
The main evidence of human origin from animals is the presence of rudiments and atavisms in his body.
Rudimia are organs that have lost their importance and function and remaining in the form of underdeveloped formations in the process of historical development (evolution).
They are laid during the development of the embryo, but do not develop. Examples of rudiments in humans can be: Copter vertebrae (the remains of the skeleton of the tail), Appendix (the process of the blind intestine), the hair cover; Ear muscles (some people can stir ears); Third eyelid.
Atavisms are a manifestation, in individual organisms, signs that existed in individual ancestors, but were lost during evolution.
A person has this - the development of the tail and hair cover on the whole body.
Historical past people
The first people on earth. The name of the monkeyeequel - Petetecantropropa received one of the earliest finds, made in the 19th century on Java.
For a long time, this discovery was considered a transitional link from the monkey to a person, the first representatives of the family of hominids. These views contributed to the morphological features: a combination of contemporary bones of the bottom limb with a primitive skull and intermediate brain mass. However, Java's pytecans are a rather late group of hominids. Starting from the 20s of the twentieth century and to the present, an important discovery was made in South and East Africa: the remains of two-legged Plio-Pleistocene primates were found (from 6 to 1 million.
years). They laid the beginning of a new stage in the development of paleontology - reconstruction of these stages of the evolution of hominids on the basis of direct paleontological data, and not on the basis of various indirect comparative anatomical and embryological data.
Epoch of two-legged manobesyan Australopites.
The first Australopita of East Africa - Zindjanthrope was found by the spouses L. and M. Liki. The brightest distinctive trait Australopitets - Strying. This is evidenced by the structure of the pelvis. Stirry belongs to the oldest acquisitions of a person.
The first representatives of the human race in East Africa. Together with massive Australopita in East Africa, 2 million years ago lived and other creatures. For the first time, it became known when the next year after the opening of the Zindjanthropa, the remains of a miniature hominid were found, the volume of the brain of which was no less (and even more) than the Australopithek.
Later it turned out that he was a contemporary Zindjantrophop. The most important discoveries are made in the lowest layer dating back 2-1.7 million years. Its maximum thickness is 40 meters. The climate, when this layer was laid, was a more humid and its inhabitants were Zindjanthrop and the congregation. The latter existed not long. In addition, stones with traces of artificial processing were found in this layer.
Most often it was a pebble size of walnut to 7-10 cm, with a few chips of the working edge. It was originally assumed that this was able to do zinjanthropes, but after new discoveries it became obvious: or the guns made a more advanced crepage, or both of the inhabitants were capable of such initial processing of stone. The occurrence of the clamp with a full oppression of the thumb should be preceded by a period of predominance of power grip, when the object was brought into a handful and clamped in his hand.
Moreover, the nail phalanx of the thumb was experiencing a particularly strong pressure.
Background anthropogenesis. Ancestors of man-shaped monkeys and man were herd vocational monkeys who lived on trees in tropical forests. The transition of this group to a terrestrial lifestyle, caused by climate cooling and the dysfunction of forests by the steppes, led to straightening.
The straightened position of the body and the transfer of the center of gravity caused the replacement of the arcuate spinal column S-shaped, which gave it flexibility.
A vaulted spring stop was formed, the pelvis was expanded, the chest became wider and shorter, the jaw apparatus is easier, and the main thing - the forefinders were released from the need to maintain the body, their movements became more free and diverse, the functions were complicated. The transition from the use of items to the manufacture of guns is the line between monkey and man. The evolution of the hand went along the path of natural selection of mutations, useful for work. Along with straightening, the most important prerequisite of anthropogenesis was a stadium lifestyle, which, as labor activity, and exchange the signals led to the development of a self-regulatory speech.
Specific ideas about the surrounding subjects and phenomena were summarized in abstract concepts, mental and speech abilities developed. Fused the highest nervous activity, and ai-partition developed.
Stages of the formation of a person. In the evolution of a person there are three stages: the most ancient people, ancient people and modern (new) people.
Many populations of a sensible person did not replace each other consistently, and lived at the same time, conducting the struggle for existence and destroying weaker.
| Ancestors of man | Progressive features in appearance | Lifestyle | Tools |
| Parappiete (found in Egypt in 1911) | Walked on two legs. Low forehead arcs, hairproof |
Considered as the oldest man monkey | Tools of labor in the form of a baton; Closed stones |
| Driopitek (bone residues found in Western Europe, South Asia and East Africa. Antiquity from 12 to 40 million years old) | According to the majority of scientists, dripiteki are considered as a common alert group for modern man-like monkeys and a person. | ||
| Australopites (bone residues of antiquity of 2.6-3.5 million years found in South and East Africa) | Had a small body (for. 120-130 cm), a mass of 30-40 kg, the volume of the brain - 500-600 cm2, moved on two legs. |
They consumed vegetable and meat food, dwell in open areas (such as Savanne). Australopites are considered as a stage of the evolution of a person who directly preceded the emergence of the most ancient people (archantropov). | As a gun used sticks, stones, animal bones |
| Peteicantrop (ancient man, remains found - Africa, Mediterranean, Oh. Java; 1 million years ago) | Height 150 cm; The volume of the brain is 900-1,000 cm2, the forehead is low, with a surplus roller; Jaws without chores | Public lifestyle; We lived in the caves, enjoyed fire. | Primitive Stone Tools, Sticks |
| Sinantrophop (China et al., 400 thousand years ago) | Height 150-160 cm; The volume of the brain is 850-1 220 cm3, the forehead is low, with the surplus roller, there is no chifferent | Lived herds, built primitive dwellings, enjoyed fire, dressed in skins | Means from stone and bones |
| Neanderthals (ancient man); Europe, Africa, Asia; about 150 thousand years ago | Height 155-165 cm; Brain volume 1 400 cm3; SOZOROVAL; The forehead is low, with a surprise roller; The chin protrusion is developed weakly | Public lifestyle, construction of foci and dwellings, the use of fire for cooking, dressed in the skins. Used gestures and primitive speech to communicate. There was a division of labor. First burials. |
Tools of labor from wood and stone (knife, scraper, multifaceted island, etc.) |
| Cryanonets - the first modern person (everywhere; 50-60 thousand years ago) | Height up to 180 cm; Brain volume - 1,600 cm2; forehead high; gyrus are developed; Lower jaw with a chiffering protrusion | Generic community. Relevant to the mind is reasonable man. Construction of settlements. The appearance of rites. The emergence of art, pottery, agriculture. Developed. Developed speech. Taming animals, planting plants. Have fading painting. |
Diverse tools of labor from bone, stone, wood |
Modern people.
The emergence of people of modern physical type occurred relatively recently (about 50 thousand years ago), which were called Cromanons. Increased brain volume (1 600cm3), well-developed self-partition; Construction of housing, the first primitives of art (rock painting), clothes, decorations, bone and stone tools of labor, the first tamed animals - everything indicates that the real man finally addressed from his animal ancestors.
Neanderthals, Cryanonians and modern people Forms one species - a reasonable man. Many years passed before people from the assigning farm (hunting, gathering) moved to the manufacturing farm. They learned how to grow plants and tame some animals. Social factors were of great importance in the evolution of Cryanonians, the role of education, the transfer of experience increased immeasurably.
Races of man
All modern humanity belongs to one type - Homo Sapiens.
The unity of mankind follows from the generality of origin, the similarity of the structure, unlimited crossing of representatives of various races and the fertility of the offspring from mixed marriages. Inside the type - Homo Sapiens - allocate five large races: a non-corrosive, europeous, mongoloid, Australoid, American.
Each of them is divided into small races. Differences between races are reduced to the features of the color, hair, eye, lip nose form, etc. These differences arose in the process of adapting human populations to local natural conditions. It is assumed that black leather absorbed ultraviolet rays. Narrow eyes protected from a sharp solar effect in the conditions of open spaces; A wide nose fasterly cooled inhaled air by evaporation from the mucous membranes, on the contrary, the narrow nose was better warming cold inhaled air, etc.
But a person thanks to the work quickly came out of the influence of natural selection, and these differences quickly lost an adaptive value.
The races of man began to form began to form, as believed about 30-40 thousand.
surrently, in the process of settling a man of the Earth, and then many racial signs had an adaptive importance and were fixed by natural selection in a certain geographic environment.
All human racems are peculiar to the common features of a person reasonable, and all races are absolutely equal in biological and mental relations and are at the same level. evolutionary Development.
There is no sharp border between the main races, and there are a number of smooth transitions - small races, from which representatives are smoothed or mixed by the traits of the main masses.
It is assumed that in the future the differences between races will completely disappear and humanity in a racial attitude will be homogeneous, but with many morphological options.
The races of a person should not be mixed with the concepts of the nation, the people, the language group.
Different groups can be part of one nation, and the same races are part of different nations.
The appearance of ancient people
Human Origins
The appearance of ancient people
Classes of the oldest people. Hunting, gathering
Glossary
Personalia
Additional Information
Used literature and sources
What studies the history of Kazakhstan in grade 6
Dear friend, today we will start studying the history of mankind of her first step - the story of ancient Kazakhstan.
In the time immemorial in the territory of the ancient Kazakhstan lived primitive peopleA few thousand years came to replace them in several thousand years: Saki, Uyuni, Huns, Sarmatians and other tribes came.
We will travel in the footsteps of the material culture of people, we will visit the ancient caves, housing.
Consider the tools of labor, the main classes, the art and religion of the ancient people.
We will be transferred in your journey through the century when people learned how to make weapons and tools of labor not only of stone and wood, but mastered copper, bronze, and later Iron.
Our ancestors committed a very long way in their development from a human-like monkey to highly organized tribes with a rich history and distinctive culture.
We will learn about the life of the people in the past by their traces, which are called historical sources.
Historic sources are three types: real, written, ethnographic.
We will get in graduating from the history of ancient Kazakhstan in real sources - the remains of ancient people, instruments of labor, dwellings, which were obtained during archaeological excavations.
Writing sources - left ancient signs, writing on stone, paper.
Ethnographic - spiritual heritage of the people: myths, legends, proverbs, sayings, transmitted from the mouth of many generations.
We are associated with distant ancestors invisible, but continuous thread of time, permeating the fate of hundreds of generations.
Recall that the countdown of the years BC. is carried out in reverse order descending, annual account new era - at the growing. The thread of time is extended from the past, through the present, to the future. As in the life of every person, in the history of peoples, states there are periods of growth: nucleation, youth, heyday, wilting-old age and death.
But in a fading period, the new forces are growing, which in turn passing all stages of development ( evolution), let go of its successors. And so forever, while there is humanity.
Peoples and states in each subsequent development cycle are very different from their predecessors for features and public Life, in terms of knowledge. Therefore, society does not stand still, it is constantly evolving.
The history of ancient Kazakhstan in the 6th grade can be divided into three epochs:
- First Epoch - Stone Epoch
- The second era - the era of bronze
- Third Epoch - Epoch of Iron
People in each historical epoch Passed their stages of development (Evolution) in three directions: the evolution of the formation and development of a person, his physical appearance; The evolution of the development of workers who used a person; Evolution of public relations of man .
Human Origins
Humanity has always worried the mystery of its origin.
The oldest people found a simple answer: they led their pedigree from any animal around them around them (bear, snakes, eagles, fish, etc.). But, starting with early civilizations, the top took a religious point of view, according to which the first people either appeared from parts of a certain deity, or were created by the creativity of some divine power. Not without the influence of pottery craft, the land or clay was considered the most appropriate material for the creation of a person.
From the point of view of scientists, the answer given by the religion on the question of the origin of a person is not convincing.
However, to offer your version of the response of science only in the XIX century. Thanks to the courage of the mind and genius Charles Darwin,which formulated the law under the influence of ambient In animals there may be minor changes, sometimes completely inconspicuous, which, helping to survive and transmitting descendants, hundreds and thousands of generations can lead to very strong transformations.
Therefore, a person was not created as it is, and passed, step behind the step, the long way of evolution.
The appearance of ancient people
The era of the ancient stone century is the time of the formation of humanity. The person has formed, like all living beings, as a result of long evolutionary development. Archaeologists on the found remains determined the level of development of humanity. In the development of a person distinguish three stages:
1. The most ancient people to whom the "South Monkey", "Skillful", Peteitrop, Sinantrophop.
Ancient people are Neanderthals.
3. Modern people, including fossils of Cromanons and modern people (the view of a reasonable person - Homo Sapiens).
Humanity is always interested in the question when and where the man originated?
About 3 million years ago on the wide expanses of African Savan, the creatures of human fossils lived in Tongue.
This fossil person called the "South Monkey", which became a link between monkey and ancient man.
Skeleton residues av-Polopitekafound in South and East Africa, in Australia. Australopitets lived about 2.6 million years ago.
Australized Lopeshek was like a monkey: the body is covered by Gus's hair, the lower limbs are longer than re-events, he walked on two legs. He collected the fruits and roots, held the items, performed the pro-steps.
The first tools of labor of the ancient man were stick-copper, pointed stone, duby. With their help, he mined me impregnation.
The first tools of labor man in the base made from stone. They were very rude and primitive. Since the tools of labor de-marked mainly of the stone, scientists call this period by the "stone age".
Scientists call the first person by the "man's mind". The earliest remains were found in Af Rica, in Kenya. He lived 1 million 750 thousand years ago.
One of the most ancient people was petetecanthrop.. SELECT PITECHANTROP was first found on the witness of Java (Southeast Asia) in 1891.
He lived about 1 million years ago.
The first finds of Petecanthrope belong to eND XIX. century, when in 1891-1892
dutch Dr. Evgen Dubua during the excavations on the island of Java discovered ancient human remains (cranial lid and long bones of the lower extremities).
The skull is characterized by a primitive structure and preservation of a number of monkey signs: protruding abnormal arcs, lack of chin, small height of the cranial box. Growth - 1.5 m.
Straightened position, although less stable gait on semi-bent legs. There are no direct evidence that Peteitroantrop has made tools of labor, since it has no remnants of the stone industry not found with it.
The next link in the development of man was synantrophop.Due to the fact that his first remains were found in China, he was called the "Chinese man" (from the Latin "Sina" - Ki Tai and the Greek "Antropos" - a man).
Synaltopa lived 500-200 thousand years ago.
Found in 1927 in the Zhoukudian cave not far from Beijing, China. After the first discovery, large-scale studies were conducted in the cave, as a result of which bones were discovered about 40 individuals in 10 years.
The value of the find is that the remains of both adult men and women and children were discovered.
The growth of about 1.5 m, the structure of the limbs and torso is similar to modern. The straightened position of the body when walking.
Stone products are made mainly from sandstone, quartz, as well as partly quartzite, volcanic rocks, cornea and silica.
Sinantrophop hunted mainly on a deer.
From those found in the cave of bones of animals, the deer belongs to 70%. Widely used and knew how to maintain fire - a powerful layer of ash was discovered in the cave, thickness up to 6-7 m.
Petetecanthrop and Synantrophop received the name of the "people spinning" in science.
Next appearance ancient man is called neanderthal.His remains for the first time were found in Germany in Neandertal terrain. Where remains were found: Europe, Middle East, Caucasus, Crimea, Central Asia.
The extreme eastern destination of Neanderthals is the Techik-Tash cave in Uzbekistan.
Its growth was average, the physique is dense, the body is slightly sutured, the forehead is steep, the eyebrows protruding. Neanderthals lived 200-35 thousand years ago. They knew how to make the tools of labor from stone, tree, bones, could produce fire and use them for their
scientific Library. dissertations on social psychology
The emergence of man.
A person belongs to the group of animals, called primates. Our ancient ancestors were small trimming animals, a little similar on modern stupid. They dwell on Earth about 65 million years ago, in the era of extinct dinosaurs. About 50 million years ago, more highly organized animals appeared the same type, such as monkeys.
Over time, the development of some primates groups went on a special way, and this path led about 25 million years ago to the emergence of the first human monkeys.
Nowadays, most of the 180 different types of primates live in typical or subtropical regions, but it was not always.
50 million years ago the climate on Earth was significantly warmer, and the ancestors of modern monkeys lived on a much larger territory. Their fossil remains are found in the British Islands, in North America and even far in the south, at the very tip of South America.
Creatures similar to chimpanzees, they once died in Europe and Asia. However, when the climate on Earth began to change, primates who inhabited these territories were gradually extinct.
Modern Tupayi let us get some idea about how early primates could look like.
Life on trees.
Early primates quickly became skilled tree.
To live on trees, you need to correctly assess the distance and tightly cling to the branches. The first task is to decide the heads ahead: it gives animal binocular vision.
To solve the second task, chain fingers are needed. Both of these properties are the most important distinctive features of primates. Everyone has pal
Tsy on the hands are movable, and the thumbnails give proper chain. Some manoid monkeys, like people, can also connect the tips of the big and index fingers, forming the letter "O".
Such capture is applied with very thin manipulations. More importantly, the primates developed a large "mental" part of the brain, head of the coordination of vision and movements of the hands.
How it all began
Today there is only one kind of people: Homo Sapiens ("Homo" in Latin "man", and "Sapires" - "Thinking").
However, scientists today believe that since the emergence of the first hominid (human-like animals), several different types of such creatures lived on Earth at different times. Ramapitecia lived in Africa, Europe and Asia in Africa, Europe and Asia. These were monkey-like animals with a rise of about 1,2m, with a flat face and teeth, similar to human. Perhaps some of his life they spent on open plains, getting food with the help of sticks and stones.
Ramapite, probably one of the first hominids, however, it seems that he was not our direct ancestor. Today, scientists find more similar traits with orangutans.
Our nearest living relatives are large man-like monkeys.
Gorilla and chimpanzee live in forest areas of Western and East Africa. Gibments are found in the rain forests of Southeast Asia, and Orangutani inhabit the wet jungle calminant and Sumatra. Of these, the gibbons are least like a person.
Very useful thumbs.
Why do you need big fingers? Ask a friend to attach your thumbs to the palms with the adhesive tape so that you cannot move them.
Now try to take any object, say, pencil or a cup. Or try to keep as many items as possible. You very quickly make sure how important it is for all these manipulations thumb, delight from all others.
"Southern Monkeys" from Africa
One of the most first fossil findings associated with the "Monkey Speed", - a child skull. He was dug in 1924 at the Tounting, on the territory of the current Botswana.
This skull had both monkeys and human traits, and its owner called Austalopitheek Afrensis. Since then, found many other fossils of the remains of Australopites ("Southern Monkeys"). All finds indicate that the brain in these animals was not very large (about 500 cm '), and large indigenous teeth served to overstate plants and fruits.
Australopitsecks were low (about 1.2 mV height). 'Some were dense and autonomous physique, others - fragile and elegant. Some scientists believe that it was
males and females of the same kind. Some of them relate to them various types Australopitets. "Southern Monkeys" is the subject of numerous discussions, and their origin is still unclear.
"Lucy", "South Monkey", found in 1974
These are some fragments of the bones of Sinantropropa's skull - one of the "straightened people."
Scientists managed to collect these fragments into a single whole and restore the full skull of Synantroprop. He had an outdoor roller, like monkeys, and the jaw outstanding. A bone protrusion stretched along the top of the skull, and there was a thickening in the form of a kind of ridge. And the cranial box, and the brain of Sinantrophop larger than the Habizza homo.
History "Lucy".
the American anthropologist Dio Johansen made an outstanding discovery, doubting the remains of the young female "Southern Monkeys" on the territory of Ethiopia in the growth of slightly above 1 m. She was called "Lucy". The brain and teeth "Lucy" were like a monkey, but it was probably the path of their curves in a straightened position. Before this discovery, scientists believed that the "southern monkeys" lived on Earth about 2 million years ago. However, the age of the remains of Lucy was defined approximately 3-3.6 million years.
So, the "Southern Monkeys" appeared on the planet per million more than years earlier than was considered before.
"Skillful man"
At that time, when the "Southern Monkeys" wandered in Africa, another group of romipids developed side by side with them.
They appeared somewhat later, about 2 million years ago. These were the first real people, or "habili." Perhaps the ancestors of them are more slender Australopitsecks. Homo Hoylis ("Skillful") was about the same growth as "Southern Monkeys", but possessed a larger brain - about 700 cm '.
We know that the "man skillful" used a whole set of guns, which included fragments of stones, cutting and rubbing tools (like knives), scrapers, as well as "Tools" for the manufacture of new guns.
Missing synanthropic.
Sinantrophop is a kind of homo erek-tus.
He lived in China about 500,000 years ago. In the 30s. XX century Scientists have discovered a rich collection of fossil remains of this ancient person in one of the caves near Beijing.
In total, the fragments of 45 skeletons were found, including pieces of 14 skulls, 14 lower jaws, 150 teeth, as well as 14 children's bones. In 1941, shortly before the war between America and Japan, it was decided to send these finds to America. Scientists did not want such a valuable cargo in the hands of Japanese soldiers.
However, the bones did not return to the destination. They disappeared without a trace but the way to the ship, which was supposed to deliver them to a safe place. The location of the remains of Synantropov 110 this day is unknown.
Before you, the photo of the Sussex Piltdown Summary, found in Sussex, England, at the beginning of the XX century.
Today he is recognized as one of the greatest mysteries in the history of science.
Neanderthals.
Even before the last "straightened people" disappeared from the face of the Earth, another type of human beings appeared on it.
Homo Saapiping ("Man Things") for the first time declared himself about 250000 years ago. Another 180000 years (that is, 70,000 years ago) the Neanderthal person settled in Europe.
Compared to its predecessors, Neanderthals were larger in all respects, the brain was hiding for a wide convex forehead, like a modern person - 1330 cm '. We know a lot about Neanderthals.
They lived in the Epoch. The glaciation, so they had to wear clothes made from animal skins, and to hide from the colds in the depths of the caves. The average life expectancy of men was about 30 years old, and women are 23 years old. Many of them suffered from arthritis. Most were right-handed.
There are some signs that Neanderthals believed in the afterlife: they solemnly buried the dead and even pinned flowers on their graves.
Ancient Hunters
Louis Liki (1903-1972), Mary Liki (r.
1913) and their son Richard (r. 1944) found a lot of fossil remains of ancient people in the Oldlya Gorge in Tanzania. Their first important discovery was the find of Australopithek, called the "Nutcracker". In the future, they opened the first "man skillful", and also found the remains of several "straightened people."
Recently, Richard Lika is engaged in excavations in other areas of Africa.
These unique petrifiers of Mary Lika found in 1978 in Tanzania. Their age is estimated at 3.75 million years, and they imprinted in a layer of volcanic dirt and ash, which further hardened. As a result, something like the "gypsum cast" of our distant ancestors, who came to walk, are a kind of prehistoric "family picnic".
A person who has never had.
peeltdauna in Sussex, England, several fragments of the skull and the broken jaw bone of an ancient person were discovered. At that time, the discovery became a real sensation, but soon some specialists began to overcome doubts. In 1953, Piltdown bones carefully studied to determine their age.
The result was unexpected. It turned out that the jaw bone belonged to Orangutanu 500 years ago, and the skull is an ordinary modern man. The bones were covered with a special flare, and teeth neatly fit to give them a prehistoric look. All this turned out to be a skillful fake. Piltdown man entered the history of science as a hoax, exposed only 40 years after it took place. The "joker" did not find it.
Head of Neanderthal man.
A look into the future.
At first, the evolution of man took place very slowly.
It took almost 7 million years since the emergence of our ancient ancestors so that humanity reaches the stage on which it learned how to create the first rock paintings.
But it was worth only to "man thinking" to firmly settle on earth, as all human abilities began to develop rapidly. For some 100,000 years, separating us from the first rock paintings, a person has become a dominant form of life on Earth. We even managed to leave the native planet and proceed to the development of space.
It is difficult to say what people will be 10,000 years old, but it is possible with. uve-
Renistency argue that they will change greatly. We generally have changed in the last 400 years, and even from the beginning of this century.
Today's soldier would hardly fit in the knight armor of the XV sample. The average growth of the medieval warrior was 16 ^ see. Nowadays, the average growth of British soldiers is 172 cm.
The current supermodel would not be able to squeeze into a dress that I wore the Praprababushka. Even if she managed to bring his waist to 45 cm, like her relatives of the Victorian era, she would still turn out to be 30 cm above! If our evolution continues in the same direction, in which she was still on, our faces will become more flat, and the lower jaw will decrease.
Our brain will become larger, and we are, apparently, still grow up. Well, since many of us. Prefer a sedentary lifestyle, it is possible that our, so to speak, the lower part of the body will also increase!
When the era of the Great glaciation approached the end, modern people began to move to a new way of life. Over time, they began to establish settlements where large communities arose.
Needed the dawn of civilization. 10,000 years ago, there were only about 10 million people around the world. However, about 4,000 years ago, their number began to increase rapidly. By 55, BC, when Julius Caesar invaded British Islands, the population of the globe reached 300 million people. Today it is already 4 billion and continues to grow.
"Southern Monkeys" may have already used stones and bones as a tool, but the "skillful people" were the first to be learned to make these guns.
A fragment of a stone, clamped between big and all other fingers, served as a good cutting tool. Yolee flat stones were probably used to scrape meat with bones.
Tools with sharp edges made with stone bumps. Homo Erectus has already invented more modern guns: they were made from flint fragments. Even more subtle "instruments" created Neanderthals. They treated fragments of silica with other stone guns that have already been kept with two fingers - large and index.
"Head above."
Recent studies have shown that our ancestors switched to straightening, that is, walking on two legs, probably in order not to overheat.
At hot African plains, 4 million years ago, walking on two legs gave them a number of advantages. A man in a straightened position, the sun's rays fell vertically on the head, instead of "to fry" his back. Since the head of the head has a much smaller surface, open to the Sun, than the back, our ancestors should overheat less.
So they sweat less, and it became, for survival they needed less water. This allowed the ancient people to become "head above" other animals in the struggle for existence.
So, according to scientists, our long-standing relatives looked like.
As you can see, our ancestors gradually became higher and the farther, the less went to the monkeys.
Where should be hair.
The transition to straight-performance had other important consequences. For example, the 2-way animal no longer needed a thick hair cover, which was removed from the other inhabitants of the savannah from the ruthless sunlight, who collapsed on their backs. As a result, except for hair that covered part of the body of our ancestors, the most exposed to solar heat - namely, they turned into the notorious "naked monkeys".
Beachless coolness
Starting to move on two yoga, the ancients, as it were, one more extremely important "evolutionary door" was opened.
In the straightened posture, much most of the body of the animal is distinguished from the hot soil, and therefore, and from the heat that he emits.
As a result, the body and head with the brain contained in it are overheated significantly less than if they were located closer to the ground. Cool wind, a walking, as a rule, in 1-2 m above the ground, provided additional cooling of the body.
When scientists have created powerful supercomputers, they had to provide them with a special cooling system. After all, large computers work very intensely and at the same time a huge amount of heat is distinguished.
It must be removed so that the computer does not overheat. The same thing happens with the brain. Going to straightening, our ancestors thus moved their own brain into a cooler environment, and this, in combination with a very effective "cooling system", allowed the brain to develop into a larger and more active.
Man who came from cold
September 19, 1991
in our world, a person returned, whose age is 5,300. Two tourists who walked in the Austrian Alps, suddenly pushed the body of a man who protruded from ice.
On the body, scraps of clothing were preserved, on the legs of shoes, there were quiver with two arrows, an ax, flint for fire cutting, a small flint dagger, something like a bag or a backpack, a set of needles and a lot of hunting equipment.
"Ice man" -shable ancient of all ever found corpses. He lived on earth almost 1000 years before the Egyptians began to build their pyramids, and 3,000 years before the appearance of the first Romans.
| Origin and human development |
Today, people in the world have no consensus on human origin. Some, including teachers at the school lesson, the slopes to trust Darwin's assumptions that the person occurred from the brothers of our smaller, primates, and, accordingly, his physical and psychological development occurs on the likeness of the primate representatives.
Some believe that a person was created by God in his way and likeness, and its development takes place at the venue and understanding "from above."
And there are also those who inclined to assume that a man's birthplace is the Universe. In this small article, we will try to consider the most common versions for today, about the origin and development of a person.
So on the first, and quite common theory today, the origin and development of a person takes its origin from human-like primates, and simply speaking - from monkeys.
This theory known to everyone has been created and voiced for the first time Great Darwin.
According to his version, thanks to the natural mutation of Australopitets, or, in a different way, the southern-on-part monkeys, the development of their brain and the ancestor of a modern man, Neandertalets appeared. Which subsequently, thanks to its work and the development of his brain, and reached the stage of a modern man.
The confirmation of this theory can serve as various archaeological finds, and a modern scientific view, on the development of the human brain.
Many and such people today, who originates and the development of a person connects with the Most High God. According to their assumption, as mentioned earlier, humanity created God, and its development takes place according to the laws of God and in his understanding.
In confirmation of its version, these people lead various miracles, which, in their opinion, occur due to the intervention of God.
Of the most famous evidence given by adherents of this theory, it is possible to bring the congument of the fertile fire in Jerusalem, various bleeding icons in different temples of the world and others.
In evidence of their theory, they do not rarely lead various "wonderful" healings, seemed to be hopelessly sick people. The highest degree of human development, in their opinion, can be considered to enter the kingdom of God.
Not enough at the present time and the same people who are sacred believe that the origin and development of a person is inextricably linked with UFOs.
According to adherents of this theory, their appearance on Earth, a person is obliged to aliens from other planets. According to the simplest, of their theory, the version is a man, this is a descendant of the airborne times to our land in prehistoric times, aliens. And for its development, they observe the hassle, sometimes adjusting what is happening on Earth.
Well, perhaps, the fantastic, from the versions given here, will be the theory that the origin of a person is associated with the spatial anomaly and subordinates its law of existence.
According to this hypothesis, reasonable creatures, like a person, can appear and develop on any of the planets suitable for life, due to the space laws of the existence that have not yet been fill.
Finally, it is worth saying that herself, as I believe, proven and standing in order to study it and further, is the theory of evolution, or differently - the theory of Darwin, despite all the arguments given by its opponents and, as they seem to be evidence.
What do you think you think?
Article "Origin and human development" from heading | Human development |
A person from birth and to death takes different age periods.
There are several popular scientific approachesSeparating this question from a social, and pedagogical point of view.
Concept
Age periodization - This is the classification of the level of human development, depending on its age, starting from the moment of birth and ending with death.
This indicator has not only social, psychological, but also legal significance.
So, at a certain age, criminal liability comes, the right to submit its interests, the right to vote, the right to receive a pension, etc.
Any step of human life has its own characteristics, problems and priorities. Each segment of life corresponds to a certain level of socialization, a specific mental state.
Periodization of mental development
Mental development- This is a state of a person in which one can judge the level of maturity of his personality from a psychological point of view. The psychological age develops from the following components:
In reality, individual components of the psychological age of a person can absolutely not coincide among themselves and with real biological age.
Classification by year
General classification by year in the table:
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Age period |
Features of Development and Communication |
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newborn |
The appearance of the light is serious, since its intrauterine existence is abruptly terminated and it enters a new, unfamiliar environment. In early infancy, the child is inextricably linked to the mother, through contact with her it will know the world around. Development occurs unconsciously, reflexively, in accordance with the laid by the nature of the genetic program. |
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Significant development of the psyche, the appearance of the first social skills is a smile, laughter, contact with adults, recognition of loved ones. Mother is still predominant for the child, but he is already beginning to realize the possibility of its existence separately from it. |
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There is a psychological separation of a child from the mother, awareness of his own "I". In 3 years, majority of children comes a crisis of development - the desire to demonstrate their independence and independence, negativism, denial. Children often do not want to fulfill the requests of adults and strive to act in accordance with their desires. Failure to satisfy the request causes. Children start talking, learn to play with other children. Vocabulary At this age is still limited. |
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Children comprehend the rules and norms existing in society. Aware what behavior is permissible. Start actively interact with peers. Parents at this age are gradually moving into the background. Vocabulary and knowledge of the world around the world are constantly expanding. Children under 7 years old are constantly asked many questions that they want to get answers. The child gradually loses children's immediacy. It is formed, internal mental life is actively developing, their own judgments appear. |
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During this period, school life acquires special importance. The child develops logical thinking, self-discipline, the ability to control emotions. Morality develops, the main moral principles are established and the attitude to the laws existing in society is being developed. |
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The most difficult period in the life of each person, when significant hormonal changes occurring in the body are reflected in behavior, self-esteem, relations with peers and family. The main problem is that as a result of significant changes in the appearance of a child (the development of secondary sexual signs), he begins to realize himself with adults, but due to his age for society, the teenager is still a child. The need for subordination to parents, teachers often cause discontent, protest. Relations with peers come to first place, which become the main authorities. Communicative skills (the ability to join the team, conquer friends, like the opposite sex) acquire a special meaning. |
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Young people |
At this age, all teenage storms staying behind. Young people acquire a certain, realize their interests and preferences. The picture of the perception of the surrounding world is finally formed, a system of moral principles is established. During this period, there is a choice of further development directions in social terms. As a rule, at the same time comes the period of the first serious relationship, the first adult. |
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Adults |
The period of maturity and maximum performance. At this time, people are at the peak of their intellectual, physical, mental development. This is active period professional activity, creating a family ,. |
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At this time, most people already have a stable profession, family, children grow. At the same time, the first signs of aging - wrinkles, seeding, a decrease in sexual and physical activity appear. Middle-aged crisis overtakes people regardless of the degree of their social and mental well-being. At this time, there is an assessment of the passed stages of life, analysis of their success and failures. It is often a decision on the need to change in the life of changes, the correction of errors made earlier. Middle age is the time when most people have children in the adolescence, and parents have already raised or died. Difficulties in communicating with children and the need for care for older parents require significant energy costs. |
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46 - 60 years |
As a rule, overcoming the uneasy middle-aged period, people closer to the 60s enter the time of stability and calm self-confidence. Most of the life remains behind and at this time, people begin to truly appreciate what they have. |
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61-75 years old (elderly) |
Most elderly people have health problems in the first place, since all chronic diseases are exacerbated by this time and the general weakness of the body appears. At the same time, social activity, the desire for communication, the inclusion in the life of the family is not weakened. Many older people continue to carry out work, which gives them an additional stimulus for life. |
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76-90 years old (old) |
Most of the old people are already on pensions and their sphere of interest is limited to their own health, communicating with family, care for grandchildren. The old people significantly change the character - it becomes less emotional, rigid. Often at this age manifests some infantality and egoism. Many anxiety appears, insomnia, fear of death. |
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over 90 years old (long-livers) |
Physical disability, passivity, anxiety and uncertainty are actively manifested. Of great importance acquires the presence of a number of close people who can provide maximum help. The fear of death in most is dulled and it comes to replace the objective awareness of the thorough end of the life path. |
Principles and approaches
The classification is based on the assessment of the following indicators:
The basis of periodization is definition of real agewhich is characteristic of the above features.
At the same time, an additional analysis of the mental, biological state allows you to more individually approach the assessment of the personality.
Elkonina
D.B. Elkonin leaning against the opinion that age gradation it has tremendous scientific importance. Building a competent classification allows you to determine the driving forces of human development at every stage of his life.
The resulting knowledge contributes to the formation of the most common pedagogical system, the development of effective rules for the education of the younger generation.
Of particular importance, the scientist attached to the early stages of human life, when the main value system is laid and an worldview is formed. Standard age-related phases Elkonin divided during periods:
Each period is estimated at four indicators:
- social impact- the influence of the Company on the formation of the identity of the child;
- leading activities - type of activity that has a priority effect on the mental state;
- a crisis- negative period in each phase, which must be overcome, which go to the next level.
- neof formation- Introduced at the new stage of knowledge, skills and skills.
Eriksona
E. Erickson allocated 8 stages of personality development, each of which corresponds to certain task.
According to a scientist at each stage, when achieving a task, a person manifests priority strengths and weaknesses.
Vygotsky
L.S. Vygotsky paid special attention to childhood, since it believed that the understanding of the specifics of each stage of the child's development gives parents the opportunity to adjust their behavior and better understand the child.
Periods allocated by Vygotsky:
Vygotsky and his periodization of the development of the psyche:
Freud.
Z. Freud believed that human behavior is the result of its unconscious work. the main driving force - Sexy energy.
The scientist highlighted the following stages of development of sexuality:
Periodization problems
The actual age of a person does not always coincide with the level of his mental development, with the degree of socialization.
Most of the outlined borders can move to any side, taking into account the characteristics of a particular person. Most vague borders Periodization in relation to adolescence.
In any case, one period is inferior to another when the qualities and properties that were not previously appeared.
The transition to the next stage of development and consumption automatically means changing the period of life.
Thus, at each stage of life, a person is characteristic certain features emotional, mental, intellectual development.
The question of age periodization worried many well-known scientists and continues to cause interest in modern science.
The physical development of a person is a complex of morphological and functional properties of the body, which determine the shape, sizes, body weight and its structural-mechanical quality.
Introduction
Signs of physical development change. The physical development of a person is the result of the influence of hereditary factors (genotype) and the factors of the external environment, and for a person - and the whole complex social conditions (phenotype). With age, the value of heredity decreases, the leading role proceeds to individually acquired features.
The physical development of children and adolescents is associated with growth. Each age period is breast, children, teenage and adolescent - characterized by specific peculiarities of the growth of individual parts of the body. In each age period, the child has a child characteristic featuresInherent in this age. There are not only quantitative differences between the child's body and adult (body sizes, its weight), but, above all, high-quality.
Currently, there is an acceleration of the physical development of a person. This phenomenon was called acceleration.
In my work, I will try to briefly describe each of the main stages of individual human development.
The main stages of individual human development
When studying the development of a person, its individual and age features in the anatomy and other disciplines are guided by scientifically based data on age-related periodization. The scheme of age periodization of human development, taking into account the anatomical, physiological, social factors, was adopted at the VII conference on the problems of age morphology, physiology and biochemistry (1965). It allocates twelve age periods (Table 1). Table 1
Individual development, or development in ontogenesis, occurs in all periods of life - from conception to death. In the ontogenesis of a person, two periods are distinguished: before birth (intrauterine, prenatal - from Greek. Natos - born) and after birth (out ofvolution, postnamed).
Prenatal ontogenesis
To understand the individual characteristics of the structure of the human body, it is necessary to get acquainted with the development of the human body in the intrauterine period. The fact is that every person has its own individual characteristics external appearance I. inner structurewhose presence is determined by two factors. It is heredity, features inherited from parents, as well as the result of the effect of the external environment in which a person grows, develops, learns, works.
In the intrauterine period, from conception and before birth, for 280 days (9 calendar months), the embryo (embryo) is located in the body of the mother (from the moment of fertilization and before birth). During the first 8 weeks, the main processes of the formation of organs, parts of the body occur. This period was called the embryonic (germs), and the body of the future person is the embryo (germin). From a 9-week age, when the main external human traits begin to be denoted, the body is called the fruit, and the period is fruit (fetal - from Greek. Fetus is a fruit).
The development of the new organism begins with the process of fertilization (merging of the sperm and egg cell), which is usually in the uterine tube. Flusted sex cells form a qualitatively new single-celled germ - the zygota, which has all the properties of both sex cells. From this point on, the development of the new (subsidiary) body begins.
Optimal conditions for the interaction of sperm and egg cells are usually created within 12 hours after ovulation. Combining the sperm core with the egg core leads to the formation in a unicellular organism (zygote) characteristic of the person's diploid set of chromosomes (46). The floor of the future child is determined by the combination of chromosomes in the zygote and depends on the Father's sex chromosome. If the egg cell is fertilized with a sperm with sexual chromosome X, then two x-chromosomes characteristic of the female organism appear in the chromosome forming chromosomes. When fertilizing with sperm with sex chromosome y, the zygote forms a combination of HY genital chromosomes, characteristic of a male organism.
The first week of development of the embryo is a period of crushing (division) zygotes for subsidiaries (Fig. 1). Immediately after fertilization during the first 3-4 days, the zygota is divided and simultaneously moving in the uterine tube towards the uterus cavity. As a result of the division of the zygota, a multicellular bubble is formed - blastuly with cavity inside (from Greek. Blastula - sprout). The walls of this bubble are formed by cells of two types: large and small. From the outer layer of small cells, the walls of the bubble are formed - trophoblast. In the future, the cells of the trophoblast form an outer layer of the shells of the embryo. Larger dark cells (blastomeres) form a cluster - embryoblast (germinal nodule, descendant descendant), which is located Knutri from Trofoblast. From this accumulation of cells (embryoblast), the embryo and the extraordinary structures adjacent to it (except for the trophoblast) are developing.
Fig.1. 
A - fertilization: 1 - spermatozoa; 2 - egg cell; B; B - crushing zygota, Mr. Morublastula: 1 - Embubline; 2 - trophoblast; D - Blastocysta: 1-Embublast; 2 - trophoblast; 3 - amnion cavity; E - Blastocyst: 1-esbros; 2-cavity amnion; 3 - blastocel; 4 - Embryonic Entoderma; 5-amnionic epithelium - w - and: 1 - Ektoderma; 2 - Entoderma; 3 - Mesoderma.
A small amount of fluid accumulates between the surface layer (trophoblast) and the embryonic nodule. By the end of the 1st week of development (6 - 7th day of pregnancy), the germ falls into the uterus and is introduced (implanted) into its mucous membrane; Implantation lasts about 40 hours. Surface cells of the embryo forming a bubble - the trophoblast (from Greek. Trophe - power), isolated an enzyme that burst the surface layer of the uterine mucous membrane, which is prepared for the introduction of the embryo in it. Forming patches (grows) of the trophoblast come into direct contact with the blood vessels of the maternal organism. Numerous verbs of trophoblast increase the surface of its contact with the tissues of the uterine mucous membrane. The trophoblast turns into a nutrient sheath of the embryo, which was called the name of the fever shell (chorion). Initially, Chorion has a villi from all sides, then these vile are saved only on the side facing the wall of the uterus. In this place, a new organ - placenta (orphanage) is developing from Chorion and adjacent to it. The placenta is the body that connects the maternal organism with the embryo and ensures its nutrition.
The second week of life of the embryo is a stage when the cells of the embryoblast are separated by two layers (two plates), from which two bubbles are formed (Fig. 2). From the outer layer of cells adjacent to the trophoblast, an extlobal (amniotic) bubble is formed. From the inner layer of cells (the incarnation of the embryo, the embryoblast) is formed an endorbic (yellowing) bubble. The bookmark ("body") of the embryo is located where the amniotic bubble comes into contact with the yolk. During this period, the embryo is a two-layer flap consisting of two sheets: an external germinal (ectoderma), and an internal germinal (entoderma).
Fig.2. The position of the embryo and germinal shells at different stages of human development: a - 2-3 weeks; B - 4 weeks: 1 - the cavity of amnion; 2 - body of the embryo; 3 - gusty bag; 4 - tropholate; In - 6 weeks; R - the fruit 4-5 months: 1 - body of the embryo (fetus); 2 - amnion; 3 - gusty bag; 4 - Chorion; 5 - Upholstery rope.
Etoderma is facing an amniotic bubble, and Entoderma arrives at the yolk bubble. At this stage, you can define the surface of the embryo. The dorsal surface goes to the amniotic bubble, and the ventral - to the yolk. The cavity of the trophoblast around the amniotic and yolk bubbles loose is filled with the hoods of the cells of the extraordinary mesenchym. By the end of the 2nd week the length of the embryo is only 1.5 mm. During this period, the germ shield in his rear (caudal) part is thickened. In the future, axial bodies begin to develop (chord, nervous tube).
The third week of life of the embryo is a period of education of a three-layer shield (embryo). The cells of the outer, ectodermal plate of the germs are shifted to the rear end. As a result, cell roller (primary strip) is formed, elongated in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the embryo. In the head (front) part of the primary strip, the cells grow and multiply faster, as a result of which a small elevation is formed - the primary nodule (nodule of the gene). The place of the primary nodule indicates the cranial (head end) of the body of the embryo.
Spinning quickly, the cells of the primary strip and the primary nodule germinate on the side between the ectoderm and the entoderma, so forms the middle embryonic leaflet - Mesoderma. Mesoderm cells located between the sheets of the flap are called intraferious mesoderm, and the extraordinary mesoderma exodes from its limits.
A part of the mesoderm cells within the primary nodule is particularly actively growing on the head and tail end of the embryo, penetrates between the outer and the inner sheets and forms a cellular severity - a spinal string (chord). At the end of the 3rd week of development in the front of the outer germinal sheet, active cell growth occurs - a nervous plate is formed. This plate will soon be defeated, forming a longitudinal furrow - a nervous groove. The edges of the groove thicken, bring together and grow together with each other, closing the nerve groove into the nervous tube. In the future, all the nervous tube develops nervous system. Etoderma is closed above the resulting nervous tube and loses with it a connection.
In the same period, from the back of the entodermal plate of the germs in an extraordinary mesenchym (in the so-called amniotic leg), the fingerous increase is penetrated - AlanTois, which does not perform certain functions. In the course of Alanlanis from the embryo to the chorion Village, blood poodle (placental) vessels germinate. Containing blood vessels, which connects the embryo with off-frozen shells (the placenta), forms the abdominal skeleton.
Thus, by the end of the 3rd week of development, the german of a person has the appearance of a three-layer plate, or a three-layer flap. In the area of \u200b\u200bthe exterior germinal leaf, a nervous tube is visible, and a deeper is a spinal string, i.e. Axial organs of the human embryo appear. By the end of the third week of development, the length of the embryo is 2-3 mm.
The fourth week of life is a germ that has a form of a three-layer panel, begins to bend in transverse and longitudinal directions. The embryonic flap becomes convex, and its edges are accurate from the surrounding embryo amnion by a deep furrower - a torso fold. The body of the nucleus of a flat panel turns into a bulk, ectoderma covers the body of the embryo from all sides.
From the ectoderma, the nervous system, the skin epidermis and its derivatives are formed, the epithelial liner of the oral cavity, the anal portion of the rectum, the vagina. Mesoderma gives the beginning of internal organs (except for derivatives of the Entoderma), the cardiovascular system, the organs of the musculoskeletal system (bones, joints, muscles), actually the skin.
An Entoderma, which inside the body of a human embryo, coats into the tube and forms the embryonic gender of the future intestine. A narrow hole that reports the embryonic intestine with a yellow bag in the future turns into a navel ring. Epithelium and all glands of the digestive system and respiratory tract are formed from the Entoderma.
Embryonic (primary) intestine is first closed in front and rear. In the front and rear ends of the body of the embryo appear in the fusion of ectoderma - the mouth of the pocket (the future pot of the cavity) and the anal (rear-ground) pog. Between the cavity of the primary intestine and the oral hole there is a two-layer (ectoderma and enantoderma) front (roto-pharyngeal) plate (membrane). Between the intestine and the rear-inaded hole there is a clock (rear-pass) plate (membrane), also two-layer. The front (roto-pharyngeal) membrane breaks through the 4th week of development. On the 3rd month, the rear (posterior) membrane breaks.
As a result of bending, the body of the embryo is surrounded by the contents of amnion - amniotic fluid, which performs the role of a protective medium that protects the embryo from damage, primarily mechanical (concussion).
The yolk bag lags behind in the growth and on the 2nd month of intrauterine development has the appearance of a small bag, and then completely reduced (disappears). The abdominal skeleton is lengthened, it becomes relatively thin and in the future it gets the name of the umbilical cord.
During the 4th week of the development of the embryo, the differentiation of his Mesoderm, which began at the 3rd week. The dorsal part of the mesoderm, located on the sides of the chord, forms paired thickened protrusions - somita. Somitites are segmented, i.e. We are divided into metaireral sites. Therefore, the dorsal part of the mesoderma is called segmented. Somit segmentation occurs gradually in front direction. On the 20th day of development, the 3rd couple of somits is formed, by the 30th day of them already 30, and on the 35th day - 43-44 pairs. The ventral part of the mesoderm on segments is not subdivided. It forms two plates on each side (non-part of the mesoderma). The medial (visceral) plate goes to the Entoderm (primary intestine) and is called gllankopligople. The lateral (outer) plate arrives to the body wall of the embryo, to the ectoderm, and got the name of the somatoplery.
The epithelial cover of serous shells (mesothelium) is developing from the splash and somatopilets (mesothelium), as well as the serous shell's own plate. Messenchima Splanechnople also goes to build all the layers of the digestive tube, except for the epithelium and glands, which are formed from the Entoderma. The space between the plates of the non-gentle part of the Mesoderma turns into the body cavity of the embryo, which is divided into the peritoneal, pleural and pericardial cavity.
Fig.3. Transverse cut through the body of the embryo (scheme): 1 - nervous tube; 2 - chord; 3 - aorta; 4 - sclerot; 5 - Miot; 6 - dermat; 7 - primary intestine; 8 - body cavity (whole); 9 - somatoplev; 10 - Splantoplavs.
Mesoderma on the border between the somites and the splashnoplory forms nephrotoma (segmental legs), of which the tubes of the primary kidney are developing, sex glands. From the dorsal part of the mesoderm - somites - three incarnation is formed. The front-end portion of somites (sclerotom) goes to construct skeletal fabric that gives the beginning of the cartilage and bones of the axial skeleton - the spine. Laterally lies with a miot, from which a skeletal muscles develop. In the rearverter of the Somit part of the somite, there is a plot - dermat, from the fabric of which the connective tissue base of the skin is formed - the dermis.
In the head unit on each side of the embryo from Etoderma at the 4th week, the primitives of the inner ear are formed (at first, auditory pits, then hearing bubbles) and the future lens of the eye. At the same time, visceral heads of the head are rebuilt, which are formed around the mouth of the bay, the frontal and maxillary processes are formed. The kice (caudal) of these processes are visible contours of the mandibular and sub-speaking (hyoid) visceral arc.
On the front surface of the body of the embryo, elevations are visible: hearty, and behind him - liver bugs. The deepening between these strumies indicates the place of formation of the transverse partition - one of the primaries of the diaphragm. The caudal of the hepatic beacon is the abdominal skeleton containing large blood vessels and connecting the embryo with the placenta (poucher rope). The length of the embryo by the end of the 4th week is 4-5 mm.
Fifth-eighth week
In the period from the 5th to the 8th week of the life of the embryo, the formation of organs (organogenesis) and tissues (histogenesis) continues. This time early Development Hearts, lungs, complication of the structure of the intestinal tube, the formation of visceral arcs, the formation of the capsules of the senses. The nervous tube completely closes and expands in the head unit (future brain). At the age of about 31-32 days (5th week), the length of the embryo is 7.5 mm. At the level of the lower cervical and 1-th-breast segments of the body appear former-like concurrents (kidneys) of the hands. By the 40th day, the feet are formed.
At the 6th week (the dark-cleaner length of the embryo - 12 - 13 mm), the laying of the outdoor ear are noticeable, from the end of the 6-7th week - bookmarks of the fingers of the hands, and then legs.
By the end of the 7th week (the length of the embryo - 19-20 mm) begin to form a century. Thanks to this, the eyes are described clearing more clearly. At the 8th week (the length of the embryo 28-30 mm) ends the bookmark of the organs of the embryo. From the 9th week, i.e. Since the beginning of the 3rd month, the embryo (dark-cleaned length 39-41 mm) takes the form of a person and is called the fruit.
Third-ninth months
Starting from three months and during the whole fetal period there is a further increase and development of the formed organs and parts of the body. At the same time, the differentiation of external genital organs begins. Low nails on the fingers. From the end of the 5th month (length 24.3 cm) become notable eyebrows and eyelashes. On the 7th month (length 37.1 cm) open the eyelids, the fat in the subcutaneous tissue begins to accumulate. On the 10th month (length 51 cm) the fruit is born.
Critical periods ontogenesis a
In the process of individual development, there are critical periods when the sensitivity of the developing organism is increased to the effects of damaging factors of the outer and internal environment. Allocate several critical periods of development. Such the most dangerous periods are:
1) the development time of the genital cells - Ovogenesis and spermatogenesis;
2) the moment of fusion of germ cells - fertilization;
3) implantation of the embryo (4-8-day embryogenesis);
4) the formation of the primaries of the axial organs (head and spinal cord, the spinal column, the primary intestine) and the formation of the placenta (3-8th week of development);
5) Stage of reinforced brain growth (15-20th week);
6) the formation of functional systems of the organism and the differentiation of the urinary apparatus (20-24th week of the prenatal period);
7) the moment of the birth of a child and a period of newborn - the transition to off-utilous life; metabolic and functional adaptation;
8) the early and first childhood period (2 years - 7 years), when the formation of relationships between organs, systems and organs of organs ends;
9) Teenage age (period of puberty - in boys from 13 to 16 years, girls from 12 to 15).
Simultaneously with the rapid growth of sexual organs, emotional activities are activated.
Postnatal ontogenesis. Period of newborn
Immediately after birth, a period of newborn period occurs. The basis for this selection is the fact that at this time there is a breasting of a child with a colostrum for 8-10 days. Newborn in the initial period of adaptation to the conditions of extorticated life are divided by the level of maturity on the docked and premature. The intrauterine development of docking children lasts 39-40 weeks., Premature - 28-38 weeks. In determining maturity, not only these deadlines, but also a mass (weight) of the body at birth.
Newborns are considered newborns with a mass mass of at least 2500 g (with a body length of at least 45 cm), and premature - newborns having a body weight less than 2500 g. In addition to mass and length, other sizes are taken into account, for example, breast girth in a ratio of body length And the girth of the head in the ratio of breast girth. It is believed that breast girth at the level of nipples should be greater than 0.5 body length by 9-10 cm, and the scums of the head - more chest girth no more than 1-2 cm.
Breeding
The next period is breast - continues until the year. The beginning of this period is associated with the transition to the nutrition "mature" milk. During the chest period, the greatest growth intensity is observed, compared with all other periods of extra utilization. The body length increases from birth to 1.5 times, and the body weight triples. From 6 months. Milk teeth are beginning to rub off. At heart age, irregularities in the growth of the body are pronounced. In the first half of the year, breast children grow faster than in the second. In each month of the first year of life, new development indicators appear. In the first month, the child begins to smile in response to the appeal to him by adults, in 4 months. It is persistently trying to stand on the legs (with the support), in 6 months. Trying to crawl on all fours, at 8 - makes attempts to walk, by the year the child usually goes.
Early childhood period
Early childhood period lasts from 1 year to 4 years. At the end of the second year of life, teething ends. After 2 years, the absolute and relative values \u200b\u200bof the annual increases of body size are rapidly decreasing.
Period of the first childhood
From 4 years, the first childhood period begins, which ends at 7 years old. Since 6 years old, the first constant teeth appear: the first molar (large native tooth) and the medial cutter on the lower jaw.
Age from 1 year to 7 years is also called a period of neutral childhood, since boys and girls almost do not differ from each other with dimensions and body shape.
The period of the second childhood
The period of the second childhood lasts in boys from 8 to 12 years old, girls from 8 to 11 years. During this period, sexual differences in the size and shape of the body are revealed, and the strengthened height of the body is beginning. The growth rates in girls are higher than that of boys, since sexual ripening in girls begins on average two years earlier. Strengthening the secretion of genital hormones (especially in girls) determines the development of secondary sexual signs. The sequence of the emergence of secondary sexual signs is quite constant. The girls first form the mammary glands, then the hair appears on the pubis, then in the armpit depressures. The uterus and vagina develop simultaneously with the formation of the mammary glands. In a much lesser extent, the process of puberty is expressed in boys. Only by the end of this period they begin accelerated growth of testicles, scrotum, and then a penis.
Teenage years
The next period is a teenage - also called a period of puberty, or a pubertal period. It continues from boys from 13 to 16 years, girls from 12 to 15 years. At this time, there is a further increase in growth rates - a puberty jump, which concerns all body sizes. The greatest increases in the length of the body in girls take place between 11 and 12 years, by weight of the body - between 12 and 13 years. The boys gain in length is observed between 13 and 14 years, and the weight gain is between the 14th and 15 years. The speed of the length of the body's length in boys is especially great, as a result of which at 13.5-14 years old they overtake girls along the length of the body. Due to the increase in the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary system, secondary sexual signs are formed. Girls continue the development of the mammary glands, there is an increase in hair on the pubic and in the armpits. The most clear indicator of puberty of the female organism is the first menstruation.
In the teenage period there is intensive puberty of boys. By 13 years, they have a change (mutation) of the voice and hair appears on the pubic, and at 14 years old have hair in the armpits. In 14-15 years, the boys appear the first pollutions (involuntary sperm eruptions).
The boys, compared with girls, is more prolonged by a puberty period and a publ of growth jump is stronger.
Youth age
Youth age continues at the young men from 18 to 21 years, and girls from 17 to 20 years. During this period, the growth process and the formation of the body and all major dimensional signs of the body are completed, and all the main dimensional signs of the body reaches a definitive (final) magnitude.
In the youthful age, the formation of a sexual system is completed, ripening reproductive function. The ovulatory cycles are finally installed in a woman, the rhythm of the testosterone secretion and the development of mature sperm from a man.
Mature, elderly, senile age
In adulthood, the form and structure of the body change little. Between the 30 and 50 years, the length of the body remains constant, and then begins to decrease. In the elderly and old age, gradual involutive changes in the body occur.
Individual differences in the process of growth and development
Individual differences in the process of growth and development may vary widely. The existence of individual fluctuations in growth and development processes served as the basis for the introduction of such a concept as a biological age, or the age of development (in contrast to passports).
The main criteria of biological age are considered:
1) skeletal maturity - (order and deadlines of the skeleton);
2) dental maturity - (timing of teething of dairy and constant teeth);
3) The degree of development of secondary sexual signs. For each of these criteria of biological age - "external" (skin), "dental" and "bone" - estimated scales and regulatory tables have been developed, allowing to determine the chronological (passport) age in morphological features.
Factors affecting individual development
Factors affecting individual development (ontogenesis) are divided into hereditary and environmental (influence of the external environment).
The degree of hereditary (genetic) influence of non-etinakov at different stages of growth and development. The impact of hereditary factors on total body sizes is intensified from the period of the newborn (TM) to the second childhood, followed by a weakening by 12-15 years.
The influence of the external environmental factors on the processes of morphofunctional ripening of the body is clearly traced on the example of the periods of menarche (menstruation). Studies of growth processes in children and adolescents in various geographic zones It was shown that climatic factors almost do not affect growth and development, if the habitat conditions are not extreme. Adaptation to extreme conditions causes such a deep restructuring of the functioning of the entire body, which cannot but affect growth processes.
Sizes and proportions, body weight
Among the sizes of the body are allocated total (from FR. Total - entirely) and partial (from lat. Pars - part). Total (general) body sizes are the main indicators of human physical development. These include the length and weight of the body, as well as chest girth. Partial (partial) body sizes are the terms of the total size and characterize the value of individual parts of the body.
Body sizes are determined by anthropometric examinations of various contingents of the population.
Most anthropometric indicators have significant individual fluctuations. Table 2 shows some averaged anthropometric indicators in postnatal ontogenesis.
The proportions of the body depend on the age and gender of the person (Fig. 4). The length of the body and its age changes are usually individual. So, for example, differences in the length of the body of newborns with normal in pregnancy periods lie within 49-54 cm. The greatest increase in the length of the body of children is observed in the first year of life and averages 23.5 cm. In the period from 1 to 10 years, this indicator Gradually decreases by an average of 10.5 - 5 cm per year. From the 9th year of age, sex differences are beginning to appear in growth rates. Body mass from the first days of life and about 25 years old in most people gradually increases, and then remains unchanged.
Fig.4 Changes in the proportions of body departments in the process of human growth.
Km - middle line. The numbers on the right show the ratios of body parts in children and adults, the numbers below are age.
table 2
Length, weight and surface area of \u200b\u200bthe body in posttyatal orthogynes
Tab.2.
After 60 years of body weight, as a rule, begins to gradually decrease, mainly as a result of atrophic changes in tissues and reduce the content of water in them. The total mass of the body consists of a number of components: the masses of the skeleton, muscles, fatty fiber, internal organs and skin. In men middle Mass Body 52-75 kg, in women - 47-70 kg.
In the elderly and old age, characteristic changes are traced not only the sizes and mass of the body, but also its structure; These changes are exploring a special science of gerontology (Gerontos - old man). It should be especially emphasized that the active lifestyle, regular physical cultures of oh slow the aging processes.
Acceleration
It should be noted that over the past 100-150 years, there is a noticeable acceleration of the somatic development and physiological ripening of children and adolescents - acceleration (from Lat. Acceleratio - acceleration). Another term to denote the same trend is the "Epoching Shift". Acceleration is characterized by a complex complex of interrelated morphological, physiological and psychic phenomena. To date, morphological indicators of acceleration are identified.
Thus, the length of the body of children at birth over the past 100-150 years increased by an average of 0.5-1 cm, and the mass of the placenta has increased by 100-300 at this time. There is also an earlier leveling ratio of breast girth and head (between the 2nd and 3rd month of life). Modern one-year-old children are 5 cm longer and 1.5-2 kg harder than their peers in the XIX century.
Body Length Children preschool age Over the past 100 years, it increased by 10-12 cm, and schoolchildren have 10-15 cm.
In addition to the increase in the length and mass of the body, the acceleration is characterized by an increase in the size of individual parts of the body (limb segments, thickness of the skin-fat folds, etc.). So, an increase in breast girth in relation to an increase in body length was small. The onset of the dates of puberty of modern adolescents occurs about two years earlier. Development acceleration touched and motor functions. Modern teenagers run faster, further jump in length, more Once tightening at the crossbar (horizontal bar).
Epochal shift (acceleration) affects all stages human life, from birth to death. For example, the length of the body of adults is also increasing, but to a lesser extent than in children and adolescents. So, at the age of 20-25 years, the length of the body men became more on average by 8 cm.
Acceleration covers the entire body, reflecting on body sizes, growth of organs and bones, on the ripening of the germ and skeleton. In men, changes in the acceleration process are pronounced stronger than women.
A man and a woman is distinguished by sex. These are primary signs (genitals) and secondary (for example, hair development on the pubic, the development of the mammary glands, a change in the voice, etc.), as well as the peculiarities of the physique, the proportion of body parts.
The proportions of the human body are calculated as a percentage of measuring the longitudinal and transverse dimensions between the border points installed on various skeleton protrusions.
The harmony of the proportions of the body is one of the criteria in assessing the state of human health. In disproportion in the structure of the body, you can think about the violation of the growth processes and the resulting causes (endocrine, chromosomal, etc.). Based on the calculation of the proportions of the body in anatomy, three main types of human buildings are distinguished: mesomorphic, brahimorphic, dollyomorphic. People, the anatomical features of which are approaching the averaged parameters of the norm (taking into account age, gender, etc.) are related to the mesomorphic type of physique (normostics). People brahimorphic type of physique (hyperstoles) are dominated by the transverse dimensions, muscles are well developed, they are not very high growth. The heart is located transversely due to the highly standing diaphragm. Hyperstets are light shortest and wide, loops of the small intestine are located predominantly horizontally. The faces of the deathomorphic type of physique (aesthenics) are distinguished by the predominance of longitudinal sizes, have relatively longer limbs, weakly developed muscles and a thin layer of subcutaneous fat, narrow bones. The diaphragm is below them below, so the lungs are longer, and the heart is almost vertically. Table 3 shows the relative sizes of body parts in people of different types of physique.
Table 3.
Conclusion
What result can be summarized above?
Human growth is uneven. Each part of the body, each body develops by its program. If you compare the growth and development of each of them with a runner on a long distance, it is not difficult to find that during this long-term "run" the leader of the competition is continuously changing. In the first month of germinal development leads a head. The two-month-old fetus is largely superior to the body. This is understandable: there is a brain in the head, and he is the most important body that matches and organizing the complex work of organs and systems. Also early begins the development of the heart, blood vessels and liver.
A newborn baby head reaches half of its final size. Up to 5-7 years ago there is a rapid increase in the mass and body length. At the same time, the hands, legs and torso grow alternately: at the beginning - hands, then - legs, then - torso. Head size during this period increases slowly.
In the younger school age from 7 to 10 years old growth is slower. If your hands and legs grow more quickly, now the leader becomes a torso. It grows uniformly, so that the proportions of the body are not violated.
In adolescence, the hands grow so intensively that the body does not have time to adapt to their new sizes, hence some clumsiness and sweeping of movements. After that, legs begin to grow. Only when they reach their final size, turns on to the growth of the body. At first it grows in height, and then growth is beginning to width. During this period, the human physique is finally formed.
If we compare parts of the body of a newborn and adult, it turns out that the head size grew just twice, the body and hands - they became more three times, the length of the legs increased five times.
An important indicator of the development of the body is the emergence of menstruation from girls and pollutions in the young men, it speaks of the onset of biological maturity.
Along with the growth of the body there is its development. The growth and development of a person in different people occur in different times, therefore anatomas, doctors, physiologists distinguish the calendar age and biological age. The calendar age is calculated from the date of birth, the biological reflects the degree of physical development of the subject. The last for each person is yours. It may happen that people who are in the same biological age can vary by 2-3 years, and it is completely normal. Girls, as a rule, are developing faster.
Literature
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