The trajectory of the movement of the ms. International Space Station (ISS)

Observation from ISS webcams of the Earth's surface and the Station itself online. Atmospheric phenomena, ship dockings, exits to outer space, work inside American segment- all in real time. ISS parameters, flight path and location on the world map.

Broadcast from ISS webcams

NASA video players #1 and #2 broadcast online from the ISS webcams with short breaks.

NASA Video Player #1 (online)

NASA Video Player #2 (online)

Map with ISS orbit

Roscosmos Video Player No. 1

Roscosmos Video Player No. 2

NASA TV video player

NASA TV's Media Channel video player

Description of video players

NASA Video Player #1 (online)
Broadcast online from video camera No. 1 without sound with short breaks. Broadcast recording was very rarely observed.

NASA Video Player #2 (Online)
Broadcast online from video camera No. 2, sometimes with sound, with short breaks. Broadcast recording was not observed.

Roscosmos video players
Interesting offline videos, as well as significant events related to the ISS, sometimes broadcast online by Roscosmos: launches of spacecraft, docking and undocking, spacewalks, return of crews to Earth.

NASA TV and NASA TV's Media Channel video players
Broadcast of scientific and information programs on English language, including video from the ISS cameras, as well as some important events on the ISS online: spacewalks, videoconferences with the Earth in the language of the participants.

Features of broadcasting from ISS webcams

Broadcast from the International Space Station is conducted online from several webcams installed inside the American segment and outside the Station. Sound channel in common days is rarely connected, but always accompanies such important events, such as docking with transport ships and ships with a replaceable crew, spacewalks, conducting scientific experiments.

From time to time, the direction of webcams on the ISS changes, as does the quality of the transmitted image, which can change over time even when broadcasting from the same webcam. During work in outer space, the image is more often transmitted from cameras installed on astronauts' spacesuits.

Standard or gray screensaver on the NASA Video Player #1 screen and standard or blue The splash screen on the NASA Video Player #2 screen indicates that the Station's video link with the Earth has been temporarily interrupted, and the audio link can continue. Black screen- ISS flyover over the night zone.

Sound accompaniment rarely connected, usually on NASA Video Player #2. Sometimes include recording- this can be seen from the discrepancy between the transmitted picture and the position of the Station on the map and the display of the current and full time of the broadcast video on the progress bar. The progress bar appears to the right of the speaker icon when hovering over the video player screen.

No progress bar- means the video from the current ISS webcam is broadcast online. See Black screen? - check with !

When NASA video players freeze, a simple page refresh.

Location, trajectory and parameters of the ISS

The current position of the International Space Station on the map is indicated by the symbol of the ISS.

The current parameters of the Station are displayed in the upper left corner of the map - coordinates, orbit altitude, movement speed, time to sunrise or sunset.

Symbols for MKS parameters (default units):

• Lat: latitude in degrees;
• lng: longitude in degrees;
• alt: altitude in kilometers;
• V: speed in km/h;
• Time before sunrise or sunset at the Station (on Earth, see the border of chiaroscuro on the map).

The speed in km/h, of course, is impressive, but its value in km/s is more illustrative. To change the ISS speed unit, click on the gears in the upper left corner of the map. In the window that opens, on the top panel, click on the icon with one gear and in the list of options, instead of km/h select km/s. You can also change other map options here.

In total, we see three conditional lines on the map, on one of which there is an icon of the current position of the ISS - this is the current trajectory of the Station. The other two lines indicate the next two ISS orbits, over the points of which, located at the same longitude with the current position of the Station, the ISS will fly over in 90 and 180 minutes, respectively.

The scale of the map is changed with the buttons «+» and «-» in the upper left corner or normal scrolling when the cursor is on the map surface.

What can be seen through the ISS webcams

The American space agency NASA is broadcasting online from the ISS webcams. Often the image is transmitted from cameras aimed at the Earth, and during the ISS flyby over the daytime zone one can observe clouds, cyclones, anticyclones, in clear weather earth's surface, the surface of the seas and oceans. Details of the landscape can be clearly seen when the broadcasting webcam is directed vertically to the Earth, but sometimes it can be clearly seen when it is directed to the horizon.

When the ISS flies over the continents in clear weather, river beds, lakes, snow caps on mountain ranges, and the sandy surface of deserts are clearly visible. Islands in the seas and oceans are easier to observe only in the most cloudless weather, since from the height of the ISS they look little different from clouds. It is much easier to detect and observe atoll rings on the surface of the oceans, which are clearly visible with little cloudiness.

When one of the video players broadcasts an image from a NASA webcam pointed vertically at the Earth, notice how the broadcast image moves in relation to the satellite on the map. So it will be easier to catch individual objects for observation: islands, lakes, riverbeds, mountain ranges, straits.

Sometimes the live image is transmitted from webcams directed inside the Station, then we can observe the American segment of the ISS and the actions of the astronauts in real time.

When some events take place at the Station, for example, dockings with transport ships or ships with a replaceable crew, a spacewalk, the broadcast from the ISS is carried out with an audio connection. At this time, we can hear the conversations of the crew members of the Station among themselves, with the Mission Control Center or with the relief crew on the ship approaching for docking.

You can learn about upcoming events on the ISS from media reports. In addition, some scientific experiments carried out on the ISS can be broadcast online using webcams.

Unfortunately, webcams are installed only in the American segment of the ISS, and we can only observe American astronauts and their experiments. But when you turn on the sound, Russian speech is often heard.

To enable sound playback, move the cursor over the player window and left-click on the speaker image with a cross that appears. The audio will be connected at the default volume level. To increase or decrease the volume of the sound, raise or lower the volume bar to the desired level.

Sometimes, the soundtrack is connected for a short time and for no reason. Audio transmission can also be turned on when blue screen, during the disconnection of video communication with the Earth.

If you spend a lot of time on your computer, leave the tab open with sound on on your NASA video players, sometimes look at it to see the sunrise and sunset when the earth is dark, and parts of the ISS, if they are in the frame, are lit by the rising or setting sun . The sound will make itself felt. Refresh the page if the video stream freezes.

The ISS makes a complete revolution around the Earth in 90 minutes, once crossing the night and day zones of the planet. Where is the station in this moment, look at the map with the orbit above.

What can be seen above the Earth's night zone? Sometimes flashes of lightning during thunderstorms. If the webcam is pointed at the horizon, the brightest stars and the Moon are visible.

Through the webcam from the ISS, it is impossible to see the lights of night cities, because the distance from the Station to the Earth is more than 400 kilometers, and without special optics, no lights are visible, except for the most bright stars but it is no longer on Earth.

Watch the International Space Station from Earth. See interesting ones made from the NASA video players presented here.

In between observations of the Earth's surface from space, try to catch and decompose (rather difficult).

Hello, if you have any questions about the International space station and how it functions, we will try to answer them.

When watching a video in Internet Explorer there may be problems, to fix them, use a more modern browser, such as Google Chrome or Mozilla.

Today you will learn about interesting project NASA as ISS online webcam in hd quality. As you already understood, this webcam works in live and the video goes directly to the network from the international space station. On the screen above, you can look at the astronauts and a picture of space.

The ISS webcam is installed on the station shell and broadcasts online video around the clock.

I want to remind you that the most grandiose object in space created by us is the International Space Station. Its location can be observed on tracking, which displays its real position above the surface of our planet. The orbit is displayed in real time on your computer, literally 5-10 years ago this was unimaginable.

The dimensions of the ISS are amazing: length - 51 meters, width - 109 meters, height - 20 meters, and weight - 417.3 tons. The weight changes depending on whether the SOYUZ is docked to it or not, I want to remind you that the Space Shuttle space shuttles no longer fly, their program has been curtailed, and the United States uses our SOYUZ.

Station structure

Animation of the construction process from 1999 to 2010.

The station is built on the principle of a modular structure: the various segments have been designed and built by the efforts of the participating countries. Each module has its own specific function: for example, research, residential, or adapted for storage.

3D model of the station

3D construction animation

As an example, let's take the American Unity modules, which are jumpers and also serve to dock with ships. At the moment, the station consists of 14 main modules. Their total volume is 1000 cubic meters, and the weight is about 417 tons, a crew of 6 or 7 people can be on board at all times.

The station was assembled by sequential docking to the existing complex of the next block or module, which is connected to those already operating in orbit.

If we take information for 2013, then the station includes 14 main modules, of which Russian ones are Poisk, Rassvet, Zarya, Zvezda and Pirs. American segments - Unity, Domes, Leonardo, Tranquility, Destiny, Quest and Harmony, European - Columbus and Japanese - Kibo.

This diagram shows all the main, as well as secondary modules that are part of the station (shaded), and planned for delivery in the future are not filled.

The distance from the Earth to the ISS is between 413-429 km. Periodically, the station is “raised” due to the fact that it is slowly, due to friction against the remnants of the atmosphere, decreasing. At what height it is also depends on other factors, such as space debris.

Earth, bright spots - lightning

The recent blockbuster "Gravity" clearly (albeit slightly exaggerated) showed what can happen in orbit if space debris flies in close proximity. Also, the height of the orbit depends on the influence of the Sun, and other less significant factors.

There is a special service that ensures that the ISS flight altitude is the safest and that the astronauts are not in danger.

There were cases when, due to space debris, it was necessary to change the trajectory, so its height also depends on factors beyond our control. The trajectory is clearly visible on the graphs, it is noticeable how the station crosses the seas and continents, flying literally over our heads.

Orbital speed

Spaceships of the SOYUZ series against the background of the Earth, taken with a long exposure

If you find out how fast the ISS is flying, then you will be horrified, these are truly gigantic numbers for the Earth. Its speed in orbit is 27,700 km/h. To be precise, the speed is more than 100 times faster than a standard production car. It takes 92 minutes to complete one revolution. Astronauts have 16 sunrises and sunsets in 24 hours. The real-time position is monitored by specialists from the Mission Control Center and the Mission Control Center in Houston. If you are watching the broadcast, then keep in mind that the ISS space station periodically flies into the shadow of our planet, so there may be interruptions with the picture.

Statistics and interesting facts

If we take the first 10 years of the station’s operation, then in total it was visited by about 200 people as part of 28 expeditions, this figure is an absolute record for space stations (before that, “only” 104 people visited our Mir station). In addition to occupancy records, the station was the first successful example of the commercialization of spaceflight. The Russian space agency Roskosmos, together with the American company Space Adventures, has delivered space tourists into orbit for the first time.

In total, 8 tourists visited space, for whom each flight cost from 20 to 30 million dollars, which, in general, is not so expensive.

According to the most conservative estimates, the number of people who can go to the present space trip numbered in the thousands.

In the future, with mass launches, the cost of the flight will decrease, and the number of applicants will increase. Already in 2014, private companies offer a worthy alternative to such flights - a suborbital shuttle, the flight on which will cost much less, the requirements for tourists are not so strict, and the cost is more affordable. From the height of a suborbital flight (about 100-140 km), our planet will appear before future travelers as an amazing cosmic miracle.

Live broadcast is one of the few interactive astronomical events which we see not in the record, which is very convenient. Remember that the online station is not always available, technical breaks are possible when flying through the shadow zone. It is best to watch video from the ISS from a camera that is aimed at the Earth, when there is still such an opportunity to view our planet from orbit.

Earth from orbit looks truly amazing, not only continents, seas, and cities are visible. Also presented to your attention are the auroras and huge hurricanes, which look truly fantastic from space.

For you to have at least some idea of ​​what the Earth looks like from the ISS, watch the video below.

This video shows the view of the Earth from space and was created from time-lapse images of astronauts. Very high quality video, watch only in 720p quality and with sound. One of the best clips, assembled from images from orbit.

The webcam in real time shows not only what is behind the skin, we can also watch the astronauts at work, for example, unloading SOYUZs or docking them. Live broadcasts can sometimes be interrupted when the channel is congested or there are problems with signal transmission, for example, in relay zones. Therefore, if the broadcast is not possible, then a static NASA splash screen or "blue screen" is shown on the screen.

The station in the moonlight, the SOYUZ ships are visible against the background of the constellation Orion and auroras

However, take a moment to look at the view from the ISS online. When the crew is resting, users of the global Internet can watch the live broadcast of the starry sky from the ISS through the eyes of astronauts - from a height of 420 km above the planet.

Crew Schedule

To calculate when astronauts are asleep or awake, it must be remembered that space uses Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which is three hours behind Moscow time in winter and four hours behind Moscow time in summer, and accordingly the camera on the ISS shows the same time.

Astronauts (or cosmonauts, depending on the crew) are given eight and a half hours of sleep. The rise usually starts at 6.00, and hangs up at 21.30. There are obligatory morning reports to Earth, which begin at about 7.30 - 7.50 (this is on the American segment), at 7.50 - 8.00 (in the Russian segment), and in the evening from 18.30 to 19.00. Astronauts' reports can be heard if the webcam is currently broadcasting this particular communication channel. Sometimes you can hear the broadcast in Russian.

Remember that you are listening and watching a NASA service channel, which was originally intended only for specialists. Everything changed on the eve of the 10th anniversary of the station, and on the ISS the online camera became public. And, until now, the International Space Station is online.

Docking with spaceships

The most exciting moments that the web camera broadcasts occur when our Soyuz, Progress, Japanese and European cargo spacecraft dock, and besides this, cosmonauts and astronauts go into outer space.

A small annoyance is that the congestion of the channel at this moment is huge, hundreds and thousands of people watch video from the ISS, the load on the channel increases, and the live broadcast can be intermittent. This spectacle, sometimes, is truly fantastically exciting!

Flight over the surface of the planet

By the way, if we take into account the regions of the span, as well as the intervals of the station being in areas of shadow or light, we can plan the viewing of the broadcast ourselves according to the graphic diagram at the top of this page.

But if you can only watch a certain amount of time, remember that the webcam is online all the time, so you can always enjoy space scenery. However, it is better to watch it while the astronauts are working or the ship is docking.

Incidents during work

Despite all the precautions at the station, and with the ships that served it, unpleasant situations happened, of the most serious incidents, the Columbia shuttle disaster that occurred on February 1, 2003 can be called. Despite the fact that the shuttle did not dock with the station, and carried out its own independent mission, this tragedy led to the fact that all subsequent space shuttle flights were banned, and this ban was lifted only in July 2005. Because of this, the construction completion time increased, since only Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft could fly to the station, which became the only means of delivering people and various cargoes into orbit.

Also, in 2006, there was a slight smoke in the Russian segment, there was a failure in the operation of computers in 2001 and twice in 2007. The autumn of 2007 turned out to be the most troublesome for the crew. I had to deal with the repair of the solar battery, which broke during installation.

International Space Station (photo taken by amateur astronomers)

Using the data on this page, finding out where the ISS is now is not difficult. The station looks quite bright from Earth, so that it can be seen with the naked eye as a star that moves, and quite quickly, from west to east.

Station shot at long exposure

Some amateur astronomers even manage to get a photo of the ISS from Earth.

These pictures look quite high quality, you can even see docked ships on them, and if astronauts go into outer space, then their figures.

If you are going to observe it through a telescope, then remember that it moves quite quickly, and it is better if you have a go-to guidance system that allows you to track the object without losing sight of it.

Where the station flies now can be seen on the graph above

If you don't know how to see it from the Earth or you don't have a telescope, this video broadcast is available for free and around the clock!

Information provided by the European Space Agency

According to this interactive scheme, it is possible to calculate the observation of the passage of the station. If the weather is good and there are no clouds, then you will be able to see for yourself the charming gliding, the station which is the pinnacle of the progress of our civilization.

It is only necessary to remember that the orbital inclination angle of the station is approximately 51 degrees, it flies over such cities as Voronezh, Saratov, Kursk, Orenburg, Astana, Komsomolsk-on-Amur). The further north you live from this line, the conditions for seeing it with your own eyes will be worse or even impossible. In fact, you can only see it above the horizon in the southern part of the sky.

If we take the latitude of Moscow, then the best time to observe it is a trajectory that will be slightly above 40 degrees above the horizon, this is after sunset and before sunrise.

> 10 facts you didn't know about the ISS

Most Interesting Facts about the ISS(International Space Station) with a photo: the life of astronauts, you can see the ISS from Earth, crew members, gravity, batteries.

The International Space Station (ISS) is one of the greatest achievements of all mankind in terms of the state of the art in history. The space agencies of the USA, Europe, Russia, Canada and Japan united in the name of science and education. It is a symbol of technological excellence and shows how much we can achieve when we work together. Listed below are 10 facts you may not have heard about the ISS.

1. The ISS celebrated its 10th anniversary of continuous human operation on November 2, 2010. Starting from the first expedition (October 31, 2000) and docking (November 2), 196 people from eight countries visited the station.

2. The ISS can be seen from Earth without the use of technology, and it is the largest artificial satellite ever revolving around our planet.

3. From the first Zarya module, launched at 1:40 am ET on November 20, 1998, the ISS completed 68,519 Earth orbits. Her odometer reads 1.7 billion miles (2.7 billion km).

4. As of November 2, 103 launches were made to the cosmodrome: 67 Russian vehicles, 34 shuttles, one European and one Japanese ship. 150 spacewalks were made to assemble the station and keep it running, which took over 944 hours.

5. The ISS is operated by a crew of 6 astronauts and cosmonauts. At the same time, the program of the station ensures the continuous presence of man in space since the launch of the first expedition on October 31, 2000, which is approximately 10 years and 105 days. Thus, the program has kept the current record, beating the previous mark of 3664 days set aboard the Mir.

6. The ISS serves as a research laboratory equipped with microgravity conditions, in which the crew conducts experiments in the field of biology, medicine, physics, chemistry and physiology, as well as astronomical and meteorological observations.

7. The station is equipped with huge solar panels, the size of which covers the area football field United States, including end zones, and weighs 827,794 pounds (275,481 kg). The complex has a habitable room (like a five bedroom house) equipped with two bathrooms and a gym.

8. 3 million lines of software code on Earth support 1.8 million lines of flight code.

9. A 55-foot robotic arm is capable of lifting 220,000 feet of weight. For comparison, this is how much an orbital shuttle weighs.

10. Acres of solar panels provide 75-90 kilowatts of power for the ISS.

international space station

International Space Station, abbr. (English) International Space Station, abbr. ISS) - manned, used as a multi-purpose space research complex. ISS is a joint international project involving 14 countries (in alphabetical order): Belgium, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, Canada, the Netherlands, Norway, Russia, USA, France, Switzerland, Sweden, Japan. Initially, the participants were Brazil and the United Kingdom.

The ISS is controlled by: the Russian segment - from the Space Flight Control Center in Korolev, the American segment - from the Lyndon Johnson Mission Control Center in Houston. The control of laboratory modules - the European "Columbus" and the Japanese "Kibo" - is controlled by the Control Centers of the European Space Agency (Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany) and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (Tsukuba, Japan). There is a constant exchange of information between the Centers.

History of creation

In 1984, US President Ronald Reagan announced the start of work on the creation of an American orbital station. In 1988, the planned station was named "Freedom" ("Freedom"). At the time, it was a joint project between the US, ESA, Canada and Japan. A large-sized controlled station was planned, the modules of which would be delivered one by one to the Space Shuttle orbit. But by the beginning of the 1990s, it became clear that the cost of developing the project was too high, and only international cooperation would make it possible to create such a station. USSR, which already had experience in creating and launching into orbit orbital stations Salyut, as well as the Mir station, planned the creation of the Mir-2 station in the early 1990s, but due to economic difficulties, the project was suspended.

On June 17, 1992, Russia and the United States entered into an agreement on cooperation in space exploration. In accordance with it, the Russian Space Agency (RSA) and NASA have developed a joint Mir-Shuttle program. This program provided for the flights of the American reusable Space Shuttle to the Russian space station Mir, the inclusion of Russian cosmonauts in the crews of American shuttles and American astronauts in the crews of the Soyuz spacecraft and the Mir station.

During the implementation of the "Mir - Shuttle" program, the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bunifying national programs creation of orbital stations.

In March 1993, RSA General Director Yury Koptev and General Designer of NPO Energia Yury Semyonov proposed to the head of NASA, Daniel Goldin, to create the International Space Station.

In 1993, in the United States, many politicians were against the construction of a space orbital station. In June 1993, the US Congress discussed a proposal to abandon the creation of the International Space Station. This proposal was not accepted by a margin of only one vote: 215 votes for refusal, 216 votes for the construction of the station.

On September 2, 1993, US Vice President Al Gore and Chairman of the Russian Council of Ministers Viktor Chernomyrdin announced a new project for a "truly international space station." From now on official name station became the "International Space Station", although the unofficial space station "Alpha" was also used in parallel.

ISS, July 1999. Above, the Unity module, below, with deployed solar panels - Zarya

On November 1, 1993, the RSA and NASA signed the Detailed Work Plan for the International Space Station.

On June 23, 1994, Yuri Koptev and Daniel Goldin signed in Washington an "Interim Agreement on Conducting Work Leading to a Russian Partnership in the Permanent Manned Civil Space Station", under which Russia officially joined the work on the ISS.

November 1994 - the first consultations of the Russian and American space agencies took place in Moscow, contracts were signed with the companies participating in the project - Boeing and RSC Energia named after. S. P. Koroleva.

March 1995 - at the Space Center. L. Johnson in Houston, the preliminary design of the station was approved.

1996 - station configuration approved. It consists of two segments - Russian (modernized version of Mir-2) and American (with the participation of Canada, Japan, Italy, member countries of the European Space Agency and Brazil).

November 20, 1998 - Russia launched the first element of the ISS - the Zarya functional cargo block, was launched by the Proton-K rocket (FGB).

December 7, 1998 - the Endeavor shuttle docked the American Unity module (Unity, Node-1) to the Zarya module.

On December 10, 1998, the hatch to the Unity module was opened and Kabana and Krikalev, as representatives of the United States and Russia, entered the station.

July 26, 2000 - the Zvezda service module (SM) was docked to the Zarya functional cargo block.

November 2, 2000 - the Soyuz TM-31 transport manned spacecraft (TPK) delivered the crew of the first main expedition to the ISS.

ISS, July 2000. Docked modules from top to bottom: Unity, Zarya, Zvezda and Progress ship

February 7, 2001 - the crew of the shuttle Atlantis during the STS-98 mission attached the American scientific module Destiny to the Unity module.

April 18, 2005 - NASA head Michael Griffin, at a Senate Space and Science Commission hearing, announced the need for a temporary reduction scientific research on the American segment of the station. This was required to free up funds for the accelerated development and construction of a new manned spacecraft (CEV). The new manned spacecraft was needed to provide independent US access to the station, since after the Columbia disaster on February 1, 2003, the US temporarily did not have such access to the station until July 2005, when shuttle flights resumed.

After the Columbia disaster, the number of ISS long-term crew members was reduced from three to two. This was due to the fact that the supply of the station with the materials necessary for the life of the crew was carried out only by Russian Progress cargo ships.

On July 26, 2005, shuttle flights resumed with the successful launch of the Discovery shuttle. Until the end of the shuttle operation, it was planned to make 17 flights until 2010, during these flights the equipment and modules necessary both for completing the station and for upgrading part of the equipment, in particular, the Canadian manipulator, were delivered to the ISS.

The second shuttle flight after the Columbia disaster (Shuttle Discovery STS-121) took place in July 2006. On this shuttle, the German cosmonaut Thomas Reiter arrived at the ISS, who joined the crew of the long-term expedition ISS-13. Thus, in a long-term expedition to the ISS, after a three-year break, three cosmonauts again began to work.

ISS, April 2002

Launched on September 9, 2006, the shuttle Atlantis delivered to the ISS two segments of the ISS truss structures, two solar panels, and also radiators for the US segment's thermal control system.

On October 23, 2007, the American Harmony module arrived aboard the Discovery shuttle. It was temporarily docked to the Unity module. After re-docking on November 14, 2007, the Harmony module was permanently connected to the Destiny module. The construction of the main US segment of the ISS has been completed.

ISS, August 2005

In 2008, the station was expanded by two laboratories. On February 11, the Columbus Module, commissioned by the European Space Agency, was docked; PS) and sealed compartment (PM).

In 2008-2009, the operation of new transport vehicles began: the European Space Agency "ATV" (the first launch took place on March 9, 2008, the payload is 7.7 tons, 1 flight per year) and the Japanese Aerospace Research Agency "H-II Transport Vehicle "(the first launch took place on September 10, 2009, payload - 6 tons, 1 flight per year).

On May 29, 2009, the ISS-20 long-term crew of six people began work, delivered in two stages: the first three people arrived on the Soyuz TMA-14, then the Soyuz TMA-15 crew joined them. To a large extent, the increase in the crew was due to the fact that the possibility of delivering goods to the station increased.

ISS, September 2006

On November 12, 2009, a small research module MIM-2 was docked to the station, shortly before the launch it was called Poisk. This is the fourth module of the Russian segment of the station, developed on the basis of the Pirs docking station. The capabilities of the module make it possible to carry out some scientific experiments on it, as well as simultaneously serve as a berth for Russian ships.

On May 18, 2010, the Russian Small Research Module Rassvet (MIM-1) was successfully docked to the ISS. The operation to dock "Rassvet" to the Russian functional cargo block "Zarya" was carried out by the manipulator of the American space shuttle "Atlantis", and then by the manipulator of the ISS.

ISS, August 2007

In February 2010, the International Space Station Multilateral Board confirmed that there are no known technical restrictions at this stage on the continued operation of the ISS beyond 2015, and the US Administration has provided for the continued use of the ISS until at least 2020. NASA and Roscosmos are considering extending this until at least 2024, and possibly extending to 2027. In May 2014, Russian Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin stated: "Russia does not intend to extend the operation of the International Space Station beyond 2020."

In 2011, the flights of reusable ships of the "Space Shuttle" type were completed.

ISS, June 2008

On May 22, 2012, a Falcon 9 launch vehicle was launched from Cape Canaveral, carrying the Dragon private spacecraft. This is the first ever test flight to the International Space Station of a private spacecraft.

On May 25, 2012, the Dragon spacecraft became the first commercial spacecraft to dock with the ISS.

On September 18, 2013, for the first time, he rendezvoused with the ISS and docked the private automatic cargo spacecraft Signus.

ISS, March 2011

Planned events

The plans include a significant modernization of the Russian spacecraft Soyuz and Progress.

In 2017, it is planned to dock the Russian 25-ton multifunctional laboratory module (MLM) Nauka to the ISS. It will take the place of the Pirs module, which will be undocked and flooded. Among other things, the new Russian module will fully take over the functions of Pirs.

"NEM-1" (scientific and energy module) - the first module, delivery is planned for 2018;

"NEM-2" (scientific and energy module) - the second module.

UM (nodal module) for the Russian segment - with additional docking nodes. Delivery is planned for 2017.

Station device

The station is based on a modular principle. The ISS is assembled by sequentially adding another module or block to the complex, which is connected to the one already delivered into orbit.

For 2013, the ISS includes 14 main modules, Russian - Zarya, Zvezda, Pirs, Poisk, Rassvet; American - Unity, Destiny, Quest, Tranquility, Domes, Leonardo, Harmony, European - Columbus and Japanese - Kibo.

• "Dawn"- functional cargo module "Zarya", the first of the ISS modules delivered into orbit. Module weight - 20 tons, length - 12.6 m, diameter - 4 m, volume - 80 m³. Equipped with jet engines to correct the station's orbit and large solar arrays. The life of the module is expected to be at least 15 years. The American financial contribution to the creation of Zarya is about $250 million, the Russian one is over $150 million;
• P.M. panel- anti-meteorite panel or anti-micrometeor protection, which, at the insistence of the American side, is mounted on the Zvezda module;
• "Star"- the Zvezda service module, which houses flight control systems, life support systems, an energy and information center, as well as cabins for astronauts. Module weight - 24 tons. The module is divided into five compartments and has four docking nodes. All its systems and blocks are Russian, with the exception of the onboard computer system, created with the participation of European and American specialists;
• MIME- small research modules, two Russian cargo modules "Poisk" and "Rassvet", designed to store equipment necessary for conducting scientific experiments. The Poisk is docked to the anti-aircraft docking port of the Zvezda module, and the Rassvet is docked to the nadir port of the Zarya module;
• "The science"- Russian multifunctional laboratory module, which provides for the storage of scientific equipment, scientific experiments, temporary accommodation of the crew. Also provides the functionality of a European manipulator;
• ERA- European remote manipulator designed to move equipment located outside the station. Will be assigned to the Russian scientific laboratory MLM;
• hermetic adapter- hermetic docking adapter designed to connect the ISS modules to each other and to ensure shuttle docking;
• "Calm"- ISS module performing life support functions. It contains systems for water treatment, air regeneration, waste disposal, etc. Connected to the Unity module;
• Unity- the first of the three connecting modules of the ISS, which acts as a docking station and power switch for the Quest, Nod-3 modules, the Z1 truss and the transport ships docking to it through the Germoadapter-3;
• "Pier"- mooring port intended for docking of Russian "Progress" and "Soyuz"; installed on the Zvezda module;
• GSP- external storage platforms: three external non-pressurized platforms designed exclusively for the storage of goods and equipment;
• Farms- a combined truss structure, on the elements of which solar panels, radiator panels and remote manipulators. It is also intended for non-hermetic storage of goods and various equipment;
• "Canadarm2", or "Mobile Service System" - a Canadian system of remote manipulators, serving as the main tool for unloading transport ships and moving external equipment;
• "dexter"- Canadian system of two remote manipulators, used to move equipment located outside the station;
• "Quest"- a specialized gateway module designed for spacewalks of cosmonauts and astronauts with the possibility of preliminary desaturation (washing out of nitrogen from human blood);
• "Harmony"- a connecting module that acts as a docking station and power switch for three scientific laboratories and transport ships docking to it through Hermoadapter-2. Contains additional life support systems;
• "Columbus"- a European laboratory module, in which, in addition to scientific equipment, network switches (hubs) are installed that provide communication between the computer equipment of the station. Docked to the "Harmony" module;
• "Destiny"- American laboratory module docked with the "Harmony" module;
• "Kibo"- Japanese laboratory module, consisting of three compartments and one main remote manipulator. The largest module of the station. Designed for conducting physical, biological, biotechnological and other scientific experiments in hermetic and non-hermetic conditions. In addition, due to the special design, it allows for unplanned experiments. Docked to the "Harmony" module;

Observation dome of the ISS.

• "Dome"- transparent observation dome. Its seven windows (the largest is 80 cm in diameter) are used for experiments, space observation and docking of spacecraft, as well as a control panel for the main remote manipulator of the station. Resting place for crew members. Designed and manufactured by the European Space Agency. Installed on the nodal Tranquility module;
• TSP- four non-pressurized platforms, fixed on trusses 3 and 4, designed to accommodate the equipment necessary for conducting scientific experiments in a vacuum. They provide processing and transmission of experimental results via high-speed channels to the station.
• Sealed multifunctional module- warehouse for cargo storage, docked to the nadir docking station of the Destiny module.

In addition to the components listed above, there are three cargo modules: Leonardo, Rafael and Donatello, periodically delivered into orbit to equip the ISS with the necessary scientific equipment and other cargo. Modules having a common name "Multi-Purpose Supply Module", were delivered in the cargo compartment of the shuttles and docked with the Unity module. The converted Leonardo module has been part of the station's modules since March 2011 under the name "Permanent Multipurpose Module" (PMM).

Station power supply

ISS in 2001. The solar panels of the Zarya and Zvezda modules are visible, as well as the P6 truss structure with American solar panels.

The only source electrical energy for the ISS is the light of which the solar panels of the station convert into electricity.

The Russian Segment of the ISS uses a constant voltage of 28 volts, similar to that used on the Space Shuttle and Soyuz spacecraft. Electricity is generated directly by the solar panels of the Zarya and Zvezda modules, and can also be transmitted from the American segment to the Russian segment through an ARCU voltage converter ( American-to-Russian converter unit) and in the opposite direction through the voltage converter RACU ( Russian-to-American converter unit).

It was originally planned that the station would be provided with electricity using the Russian module of the Science and Energy Platform (NEP). However, after the Columbia shuttle disaster, the station assembly program and the shuttle flight schedule were revised. Among other things, they also refused to deliver and install the NEP, so at the moment most of the electricity is produced by solar panels in the American sector.

In the US segment, the solar panels are organized as follows: two flexible, collapsible solar panels form the so-called solar wing ( Solar Array Wing, SAW), a total of four pairs of such wings are placed on the truss structures of the station. Each wing is 35 m long and 11.6 m wide, and has a usable area of ​​298 m², while generating a total power of up to 32.8 kW. Solar panels generate a primary DC voltage of 115 to 173 Volts, which is then, with the help of DDCU units (Eng. Direct Current to Direct Current Converter Unit ), is transformed into a secondary stabilized DC voltage of 124 volts. This stabilized voltage is directly used to power the electrical equipment of the American segment of the station.

Solar array on the ISS

The station makes one revolution around the Earth in 90 minutes and it spends about half of this time in the shadow of the Earth, where the solar panels do not work. Then its power supply comes from buffer nickel-hydrogen batteries, which are recharged when the ISS returns to sunlight. The service life of the batteries is 6.5 years, it is expected that during the life of the station they will be replaced several times. The first battery replacement was carried out on the P6 segment during the spacewalk of astronauts during the flight of the Endeavor shuttle STS-127 in July 2009.

Under normal conditions, solar arrays in the US sector track the Sun to maximize power generation. Solar panels are directed to the Sun with the help of Alpha and Beta drives. The station has two Alpha drives, which turn several sections with solar panels located on them around the longitudinal axis of the truss structures at once: the first drive turns the sections from P4 to P6, the second - from S4 to S6. Each wing of the solar battery has its own Beta drive, which ensures the rotation of the wing relative to its longitudinal axis.

When the ISS is in the shadow of the Earth, the solar panels are switched to Night Glider mode ( English) (“Night planning mode”), while they turn edge in the direction of travel to reduce the resistance of the atmosphere, which is present at the altitude of the station.

Means of communication

The transmission of telemetry and the exchange of scientific data between the station and the Mission Control Center is carried out using radio communications. In addition, radio communications are used during rendezvous and docking operations, they are used for audio and video communication between crew members and with flight control specialists on Earth, as well as relatives and friends of astronauts. Thus, the ISS is equipped with internal and external multipurpose communication systems.

The Russian Segment of the ISS communicates directly with the Earth using the Lira radio antenna installed on the Zvezda module. "Lira" makes it possible to use the satellite data relay system "Luch". This system was used to communicate with the Mir station, but in the 1990s it fell into disrepair and is currently not used. Luch-5A was launched in 2012 to restore the system's operability. In May 2014, 3 multifunctional space system relays "Luch" - "Luch-5A," "Luch-5B" and "Luch-5V". In 2014, it is planned to install specialized subscriber equipment on the Russian segment of the station.

Other Russian system communications, Voskhod-M, provides telephone communication between the modules Zvezda, Zarya, Pirs, Poisk and the American segment, as well as VHF radio communication with ground control centers, using external antennas of the Zvezda module ".

In the US segment, for communication in the S-band (audio transmission) and K u-band (audio, video, data transmission), two separate systems are used, located on the Z1 truss. Radio signals from these systems are transmitted to the American geostationary TDRSS satellites, which allows you to maintain almost continuous contact with the mission control center in Houston. Data from Canadarm2, the European Columbus module and the Japanese Kibo are redirected through these two communication systems, however, the American TDRSS data transmission system will eventually be supplemented by the European satellite system (EDRS) and a similar Japanese one. Communication between the modules is carried out via an internal digital wireless network.

During spacewalks, cosmonauts use a VHF transmitter of the decimeter range. VHF radio communications are also used during docking or undocking by the Soyuz, Progress, HTV, ATV and Space Shuttle spacecraft (although the shuttles also use S- and Ku-band transmitters via TDRSS). With its help, these spacecraft receive commands from the Mission Control Center or from members of the ISS crew. Automatic spacecraft are equipped with their own means of communication. So, ATV ships use a specialized system during rendezvous and docking. Proximity Communication Equipment (PCE), the equipment of which is located on the ATV and on the Zvezda module. Communication is via two completely independent S-band radio channels. PCE begins to function starting from relative ranges of about 30 kilometers, and turns off after the ATV docks to the ISS and switches to interaction via the MIL-STD-1553 onboard bus. To accurately determine the relative position of the ATV and the ISS, a system of laser rangefinders installed on the ATV is used, making accurate docking with the station possible.

The station is equipped with about a hundred ThinkPad laptops from IBM and Lenovo, models A31 and T61P, running Debian GNU/Linux. These are ordinary serial computers, which, however, have been modified for use in the conditions of the ISS, in particular, they have redesigned connectors, a cooling system, take into account the 28 Volt voltage used at the station, and also meet the safety requirements for working in zero gravity. Since January 2010, direct Internet access has been organized at the station for the American segment. Computers aboard the ISS are connected via Wi-Fi into a wireless network and are connected to the Earth at a speed of 3 Mbps for download and 10 Mbps for download, which is comparable to a home ADSL connection.

Bathroom for astronauts

The toilet on the OS is designed for both men and women, looks exactly the same as on Earth, but has a number of design features. The toilet bowl is equipped with fixators for legs and holders for hips, powerful air pumps are mounted in it. The astronaut is fastened with a special spring fastener to the toilet seat, then turns on a powerful fan and opens the suction hole, where the air flow carries all the waste.

On the ISS, the air from the toilets is necessarily filtered to remove bacteria and odor before it enters the living quarters.

Greenhouse for astronauts

Fresh greens grown in microgravity are officially on the menu for the first time on the International Space Station. On August 10, 2015, astronauts will taste lettuce harvested from the Veggie orbital plantation. Many media publications reported that for the first time the astronauts tried their own grown food, but this experiment was carried out at the Mir station.

Scientific research

One of the main goals in the creation of the ISS was the possibility of conducting experiments at the station that require unique conditions. space flight: microgravity, vacuum, cosmic radiation not attenuated by the earth's atmosphere. The main areas of research include biology (including biomedical research and biotechnology), physics (including fluid physics, materials science and quantum physics), astronomy, cosmology and meteorology. Research is carried out with the help of scientific equipment, mainly located in specialized scientific modules-laboratories, part of the equipment for experiments requiring vacuum is fixed outside the station, outside its hermetic volume.

ISS Science Modules

At present (January 2012), the station has three special scientific modules - the American Destiny laboratory, launched in February 2001, the European research module Columbus, delivered to the station in February 2008, and the Japanese research module Kibo ". The European research module is equipped with 10 racks in which instruments for research in various fields of science are installed. Some racks are specialized and equipped for research in biology, biomedicine, and fluid physics. The rest of the racks are universal, in which the equipment can change depending on the experiments being carried out.

The Japanese research module "Kibo" consists of several parts, which were sequentially delivered and assembled in orbit. The first compartment of the Kibo module is a sealed experimental-transport compartment (Eng. JEM Experiment Logistics Module - Pressurized Section ) was delivered to the station in March 2008, during the flight of the Endeavor shuttle STS-123. The last part of the Kibo module was attached to the station in July 2009, when the shuttle delivered the leaky Experimental Transport Compartment to the ISS. Experiment Logistics Module, Unpressurized Section ).

Russia has two "Small Research Modules" (MRM) on the orbital station - "Poisk" and "Rassvet". It is also planned to deliver the Nauka multifunctional laboratory module (MLM) into orbit. Only the latter will have full-fledged scientific capabilities, the amount of scientific equipment placed on two MRMs is minimal.

Joint experiments

The international nature of the ISS project facilitates joint scientific experiments. Such cooperation is most widely developed by European and Russian scientific institutions under the auspices of ESA and the Federal Space Agency of Russia. Notable examples such cooperation became an experiment " Plasma Crystal”, dedicated to the physics of dusty plasma, and held by the Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics of the Max Planck Society, the Institute high temperatures and the Institute of Problems chemical physics RAS, as well as a number of other scientific institutions in Russia and Germany, the medical and biological experiment "Matryoshka-R", in which dummies - equivalents are used to determine the absorbed dose of ionizing radiation biological objects, created at the Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Cologne Institute of Space Medicine.

The Russian side is also a contractor for contract experiments by ESA and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. For example, Russian cosmonauts tested the ROKVISS robotic experimental system. Robotic Components Verification on ISS- testing of robotic components on the ISS), developed at the Institute of Robotics and Mechatronics, located in Wesling, near Munich, Germany.

Russian studies

Comparison between burning a candle on Earth (left) and in microgravity on the ISS (right)

In 1995, a competition was announced among Russian scientific and educational institutions, industrial organizations to conduct scientific research on the Russian segment of the ISS. In eleven major research areas, 406 applications were received from eighty organizations. After evaluation by RSC Energia specialists of the technical feasibility of these applications, in 1999 the Long-Term Program of Applied Research and Experiments Planned on the Russian Segment of the ISS was adopted. The program was approved by RAS President Yu. S. Osipov and Director General of the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (now FKA) Yu. N. Koptev. The first research on the Russian segment of the ISS was started by the first manned expedition in 2000. According to the original ISS project, it was supposed to launch two large Russian research modules (RMs). The electricity needed for scientific experiments was to be provided by the Science and Energy Platform (SEP). However, due to underfunding and delays in the construction of the ISS, all these plans were canceled in favor of building a single science module that did not require large costs and additional orbital infrastructure. A significant part of the research conducted by Russia on the ISS is contract or joint with foreign partners.

Various medical, biological and physical studies are currently being carried out on the ISS.

Research on the American segment

Epstein-Barr virus shown with fluorescent antibody staining technique

The United States is conducting an extensive research program on the ISS. Many of these experiments are a continuation of research carried out during shuttle flights with Spacelab modules and in the joint Mir-Shuttle program with Russia. An example is the study of the pathogenicity of one of the causative agents of herpes, the Epstein-Barr virus. According to statistics, 90% of the US adult population are carriers of a latent form of this virus. Under conditions of space flight, work is weakened immune system, the virus can reactivate and cause illness to a crew member. Experiments to study the virus were launched on the shuttle flight STS-108.

European studies

Solar observatory installed on the Columbus module

The European Science Module Columbus has 10 Unified Payload Racks (ISPR), although some of them, by agreement, will be used in NASA experiments. For the needs of ESA, the following scientific equipment is installed in the racks: the Biolab laboratory for biological experiments, the Fluid Science Laboratory for research in the field of fluid physics, the European Physiology Modules for experiments in physiology, as well as the European Drawer Rack, which contains equipment for conducting experiments on protein crystallization (PCDF).

During STS-122, external experimental facilities for the Columbus module were also installed: the remote platform for technological experiments EuTEF and the solar observatory SOLAR. It is planned to add an external laboratory for testing general relativity and string theory Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space.

Japanese studies

The program of research conducted on the Kibo module includes the study of processes global warming on Earth, the ozone layer and surface desertification, holding astronomical research in the x-ray range.

Experiments are planned to create large and identical protein crystals, which are designed to help understand the mechanisms of disease and develop new treatments. In addition, the effect of microgravity and radiation on plants, animals and people will be studied, as well as experiments in robotics, communications and energy will be carried out.

In April 2009, Japanese astronaut Koichi Wakata conducted a series of experiments on the ISS, which were selected from those proposed by ordinary citizens. The astronaut tried to "swim" in zero gravity, using various styles, including front crawl and butterfly. However, none of them allowed the astronaut to even budge. The astronaut noted at the same time that even large sheets of paper will not be able to correct the situation if they are picked up and used as flippers. In addition, the astronaut wanted to juggle a soccer ball, but this attempt was also unsuccessful. Meanwhile, the Japanese managed to send the ball back with an overhead kick. Having finished these exercises, which were difficult under weightless conditions, the Japanese astronaut tried to do push-ups from the floor and do rotations in place.

Security questions

space junk

A hole in the radiator panel of the shuttle Endeavor STS-118, formed as a result of a collision with space debris

Since the ISS moves in a relatively low orbit, there is a certain chance that the station or astronauts going into outer space will collide with the so-called space debris. This can include both large objects like rocket stages or out-of-service satellites, and small objects like slag from solid rocket engines, coolants from reactor plants of US-A series satellites, and other substances and objects. In addition, natural objects like micrometeorites pose an additional threat. Considering space velocities in orbit, even small objects can cause serious damage to the station, and in the event of a possible hit in an astronaut's spacesuit, micrometeorites can pierce the skin and cause depressurization.

To avoid such collisions, remote monitoring of the movement of space debris elements is carried out from the Earth. If such a threat appears at a certain distance from the ISS, the station crew receives a warning. Astronauts will have enough time to activate the DAM system (Eng. Debris Avoidance Manoeuvre), which is a group of propulsion systems from the Russian segment of the station. The included engines are able to put the station into a higher orbit and thus avoid a collision. In case of late detection of danger, the crew is evacuated from the ISS on Soyuz spacecraft. Partial evacuations took place on the ISS: April 6, 2003, March 13, 2009, June 29, 2011, and March 24, 2012.

Radiation

In the absence of the massive atmospheric layer that surrounds humans on Earth, astronauts on the ISS are exposed to more intense radiation from constant streams of cosmic rays. On the day, crew members receive a dose of radiation in the amount of about 1 millisievert, which is approximately equivalent to the exposure of a person on Earth for a year. This leads to an increased risk of developing malignant tumors in astronauts, as well as a weakening of the immune system. The weak immunity of astronauts can contribute to the spread of infectious diseases among crew members, especially in the confined space of the station. Despite attempts to improve radiation protection mechanisms, the level of radiation penetration has not changed much compared to previous studies, conducted, for example, at the Mir station.

Station body surface

During the inspection of the outer skin of the ISS, traces of vital activity of marine plankton were found on scrapings from the surface of the hull and windows. It also confirmed the need to clean the outer surface of the station due to contamination from the operation of spacecraft engines.

Legal side

Legal levels

The legal framework governing the legal aspects of the space station is diverse and consists of four levels:

• First The level that establishes the rights and obligations of the parties is the Intergovernmental Agreement on the Space Station (eng. Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement - IGA ), signed on January 29, 1998 by fifteen governments of the countries participating in the project - Canada, Russia, USA, Japan, and eleven states - members of the European Space Agency (Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, France, Switzerland and Sweden). Article No. 1 of this document reflects the main principles of the project:
  This agreement is long term. international structure on the basis of a sincere partnership, for the comprehensive design, construction, development and long-term use of a habitable civil space station for peaceful purposes, in accordance with international law. When writing this agreement, the "Outer Space Treaty" of 1967, ratified by 98 countries, was taken as a basis, which borrowed the traditions of international maritime and air law.
• The first level of partnership is the basis second level called Memorandums of Understanding. Memorandum of Understanding - MOU s ). These memorandums are agreements between NASA and four national space agencies: FKA, ESA, CSA and JAXA. Memorandums are used for more detailed description roles and responsibilities of partners. Moreover, since NASA is the appointed manager of the ISS, there are no separate agreements between these organizations directly, only with NASA.
• To third level includes barter agreements or agreements on the rights and obligations of the parties - for example, a 2005 commercial agreement between NASA and Roscosmos, the terms of which included one guaranteed place for an American astronaut as part of the Soyuz spacecraft crews and part of the useful volume for American cargo on unmanned " Progress".
• Fourth the legal level complements the second (“Memorandums”) and enacts separate provisions from it. An example of this is the Code of Conduct on the ISS, which was developed in pursuance of paragraph 2 of Article 11 of the Memorandum of Understanding - legal aspects of subordination, discipline, physical and information security, and other rules of conduct for crew members.

Ownership structure

The ownership structure of the project does not provide for its members a clearly established percentage for the use of the space station as a whole. According to Article 5 (IGA), the jurisdiction of each of the partners extends only to the component of the station that is registered with him, and violations of the law by personnel, inside or outside the station, are subject to proceedings under the laws of the country of which they are citizens.

Interior of the Zarya module

Agreements on the use of ISS resources are more complex. The Russian modules Zvezda, Pirs, Poisk and Rassvet are manufactured and owned by Russia, which retains the right to use them. The planned Nauka module will also be manufactured in Russia and will be included in the Russian segment of the station. The Zarya module was built and delivered into orbit by the Russian side, but this was done at the expense of the United States, so NASA is officially the owner of this module today. For the use of Russian modules and other components of the plant, partner countries use additional bilateral agreements (the aforementioned third and fourth legal levels).

The rest of the station (US modules, European and Japanese modules, trusses, solar panels and two robotic arms) as agreed by the parties are used as follows (in % of the total time of use):

1. Columbus - 51% for ESA, 49% for NASA
2. Kibo - 51% for JAXA, 49% for NASA
3. Destiny - 100% for NASA

In addition to this:

• NASA can use 100% of the truss area;
• Under an agreement with NASA, KSA can use 2.3% of any non-Russian components;
• Crew hours, solar power, use of ancillary services (loading/unloading, communication services) - 76.6% for NASA, 12.8% for JAXA, 8.3% for ESA and 2.3% for CSA.

Legal curiosities

Prior to the flight of the first space tourist, there was no regulatory framework governing space flights by individuals. But after the flight of Dennis Tito, the countries participating in the project developed "Principles" that defined such a concept as "Space Tourist" and all the necessary questions for his participation in the visiting expedition. In particular, such a flight is possible only if there are specific medical conditions, psychological fitness, language training, and a monetary contribution.

The participants of the first cosmic wedding in 2003 found themselves in the same situation, since such a procedure was also not regulated by any laws.

In 2000, the Republican majority in the US Congress passed legislation on the non-proliferation of missile and nuclear technologies in Iran, according to which, in particular, the United States could not purchase equipment and ships from Russia necessary for the construction of the ISS. However, after the Columbia disaster, when the fate of the project depended on the Russian Soyuz and Progress, on October 26, 2005, Congress was forced to pass amendments to this bill, removing all restrictions on “any protocols, agreements, memorandums of understanding or contracts” until January 1, 2012.

Costs

The cost of building and operating the ISS turned out to be much more than originally planned. In 2005, according to the ESA, about 100 billion euros (157 billion dollars or 65.3 billion pounds sterling) would have been spent from the start of work on the ISS project in the late 1980s to its then expected completion in 2010 \ . However, today the end of the operation of the station is planned no earlier than 2024, in connection with the request of the United States, which are not able to undock their segment and continue flying, the total costs of all countries are estimated at a larger amount.

It is very difficult to make an accurate estimate of the cost of the ISS. For example, it is not clear how Russia's contribution should be calculated, since Roscosmos uses significantly lower dollar rates than other partners.

NASA

Assessing the project as a whole, most of NASA's expenses are the complex of activities for flight support and the costs of managing the ISS. In other words, current operating costs account for a much larger proportion of the funds spent than the costs of building modules and other station devices, training crews, and delivery ships.

NASA spending on the ISS, excluding the cost of the "Shuttle", from 1994 to 2005 amounted to 25.6 billion dollars. For 2005 and 2006 there were approximately 1.8 billion dollars. It is assumed that the annual costs will increase, and by 2010 will amount to 2.3 billion dollars. Then, until the completion of the project in 2016, no increase is planned, only inflationary adjustments.

Distribution of budgetary funds

To estimate the itemized list of NASA costs, for example, according to a document published by the space agency, which shows how the $ 1.8 billion spent by NASA on the ISS in 2005 was distributed:

• Research and development of new equipment- 70 million dollars. This amount was, in particular, used for the development of navigation systems, for Information Support, on technology to reduce pollution.
• Flight support- 800 million dollars. This amount included: per ship, $125 million for software, spacewalks, supply and maintenance of shuttles; an additional $150 million was spent on the flights themselves, avionics, and crew-ship communication systems; the remaining $250 million went to the overall management of the ISS.
• Ship launches and expeditions- $125 million for pre-launch operations at the spaceport; $25 million for medical care; $300 million spent on managing expeditions;
• Flight program- $350 million was spent on the development of the flight program, on the maintenance of ground equipment and software, for guaranteed and uninterrupted access to the ISS.
• Cargo and crews- 140 million dollars were spent on the purchase of consumables, as well as the ability to deliver cargo and crews on Russian Progress and Soyuz.

The cost of the "Shuttle" as part of the cost of the ISS

Of the ten scheduled flights remaining until 2010, only one STS-125 flew not to the station, but to the Hubble telescope

As mentioned above, NASA does not include the cost of the Shuttle program in the main cost of the station, because it positions it as a separate project, independent of the ISS. However, from December 1998 to May 2008, only 5 out of 31 shuttle flights were not associated with the ISS, and out of the eleven scheduled flights remaining until 2011, only one STS-125 flew not to the station, but to the Hubble telescope.

The approximate costs of the Shuttle program for the delivery of cargo and crews of astronauts to the ISS amounted to:

• Excluding the first flight in 1998, from 1999 to 2005, the costs amounted to $24 billion. Of these, 20% (5 billion dollars) did not belong to the ISS. Total - 19 billion dollars.
• From 1996 to 2006, it was planned to spend $ 20.5 billion on flights under the Shuttle program. If we subtract the flight to the Hubble from this amount, then in the end we get the same $ 19 billion.

That is, the total cost of NASA for flights to the ISS for the entire period will be approximately 38 billion dollars.

Total

Taking into account NASA's plans for the period from 2011 to 2017, as a first approximation, you can get an average annual expenditure of $ 2.5 billion, which for the subsequent period from 2006 to 2017 will be $ 27.5 billion. Knowing the costs of the ISS from 1994 to 2005 (25.6 billion dollars) and adding these figures, we get the final official result - 53 billion dollars.

It should also be noted that this figure does not include the significant costs of designing the Freedom space station in the 1980s and early 1990s, and participating in a joint program with Russia to use the Mir station in the 1990s. The developments of these two projects were repeatedly used in the construction of the ISS. Given this circumstance, and taking into account the situation with the Shuttle, we can talk about a more than twofold increase in the amount of expenses, compared with the official one - more than $ 100 billion for the United States alone.

ESA

ESA has calculated that its contribution over the 15 years of the project's existence will be 9 billion euros. Costs for the Columbus module exceed 1.4 billion euros (approximately $2.1 billion), including costs for ground control and command systems. The total ATV development costs are approximately 1.35 billion euros, with each Ariane 5 launch costing approximately 150 million euros.

JAXA

The development of the Japanese Experiment Module, JAXA's main contribution to the ISS, cost approximately 325 billion yen (approximately $2.8 billion).

In 2005, JAXA allocated approximately 40 billion yen (350 million USD) to the ISS program. The annual operating cost of the Japanese experimental module is $350-400 million. In addition, JAXA has pledged to develop and launch the H-II transport ship, with a total development cost of $1 billion. JAXA's 24 years of participation in the ISS program will exceed $10 billion.

Roscosmos

A significant part of the budget of the Russian Space Agency is spent on the ISS. Since 1998, more than three dozen Soyuz and Progress flights have been made, which since 2003 have become the main means of delivering cargo and crews. However, the question of how much Russia spends on the station (in US dollars) is not simple. The currently existing 2 modules in orbit are derivatives of the Mir program, and therefore the costs for their development are much lower than for other modules, however, in this case, by analogy with the American programs, one should also take into account the costs for the development of the corresponding station modules " World". In addition, the exchange rate between the ruble and the dollar does not adequately assess the actual costs of Roscosmos.

A rough idea of ​​the expenses of the Russian space agency on the ISS can be obtained from its general budget, which in 2005 amounted to 25.156 billion rubles, in 2006 - 31.806, in 2007 - 32.985 and in 2008 - 37.044 billion rubles. Thus, the station spends less than one and a half billion US dollars per year.

CSA

The Canadian Space Agency (CSA) is a regular partner of NASA, so Canada has been involved in the ISS project from the very beginning. Canada's contribution to the ISS is mobile system maintenance, consisting of three parts: a movable trolley that can move along the truss structure of the station, a robotic manipulator "Canadarm2" (Canadarm2), which is installed on a movable trolley, and a special manipulator "Dextre" (Dextre). Over the past 20 years, the CSA is estimated to have invested C$1.4 billion in the station.

Criticism

In the entire history of astronautics, the ISS is the most expensive and, perhaps, the most criticized space project. Criticism can be considered constructive or short-sighted, you can agree with it or dispute it, but one thing remains unchanged: the station exists, by its existence it proves the possibility of international cooperation in space and increases the experience of mankind in space flights, spending huge financial resources on this.

Criticism in the US

The criticism of the American side is mainly aimed at the cost of the project, which already exceeds $100 billion. This money, according to critics, could be better spent on automatic (unmanned) flights for the exploration of near space or on scientific projects held on Earth. In response to some of these criticisms, defenders of manned space flights it is said that criticism of the ISS project is short-sighted and that the payoff from manned astronautics and space exploration is in the material terms of billions of dollars. Jerome Schnee Jerome Schnee) estimated the indirect economic contribution from additional revenues associated with space exploration as many times greater than the initial public investment.

However, a statement from the Federation of American Scientists claims that NASA's rate of return on additional revenue is actually very low, except for developments in aeronautics that improve aircraft sales.

Critics also say that NASA often lists third-party developments as part of its achievements, ideas and developments that may have been used by NASA, but had other prerequisites independent of astronautics. Really useful and profitable, according to critics, are unmanned navigation, meteorological and military satellites. NASA widely publicizes additional revenues from the construction of the ISS and from work performed on it, while NASA's official list of expenses is much more concise and secret.

Criticism of scientific aspects

According to Professor Robert Park Robert Park), most of the planned scientific studies are not of high priority. He notes that the goal of most scientific research in the space laboratory is to carry it out in microgravity, which can be done much cheaper in artificial weightlessness (in a special aircraft that flies along a parabolic trajectory (eng. reduced gravity aircraft).

The plans for the construction of the ISS included two science-intensive components - a magnetic alpha spectrometer and a centrifuge module (Eng. Centrifuge Accommodation Module) . The first has been operating at the station since May 2011. The creation of the second one was abandoned in 2005 as a result of the correction of plans for completing the construction of the station. Highly specialized experiments carried out on the ISS are limited by the lack of appropriate equipment. For example, in 2007, studies were conducted on the influence of space flight factors on the human body, affecting such aspects as kidney stones, circadian rhythm (cyclicity biological processes in the human body), the influence of cosmic radiation on the human nervous system. Critics argue that these studies have little practical value, since the reality of today's exploration of near space is unmanned automatic ships.

Criticism of technical aspects

American journalist Jeff Faust Jeff Foust) argued that maintenance of the ISS required too many expensive and dangerous EVAs. Pacific Astronomical Society The Astronomical Society of the Pacific At the beginning of the design of the ISS, attention was drawn to the too high inclination of the station's orbit. If for the Russian side this reduces the cost of launches, then for the American side it is unprofitable. The concession that NASA made to the Russian Federation due to geographical location Baikonur, in the end, may increase the total cost of building the ISS.

In general, the debate in American society is reduced to a discussion of the feasibility of the ISS, in the aspect of astronautics in a broader sense. Some advocates argue that apart from its scientific value, it is - important example international cooperation. Others argue that the ISS could potentially, with the right efforts and improvements, make flights to and from more economical. One way or another, the main point of responses to criticism is that it is difficult to expect a serious financial return from the ISS, rather, its main purpose is to become part of the global expansion of space flight capabilities.

Criticism in Russia

In Russia, criticism of the ISS project is mainly aimed at the inactive position of the leadership of the Federal Space Agency (FCA) in defending Russian interests in comparison with the American side, which always strictly monitors the observance of its national priorities.

For example, journalists ask questions about why Russia does not have its own orbital station project, and why money is being spent on a project owned by the United States, while these funds could be spent on completely Russian development. According to the head of RSC Energia, Vitaly Lopota, the reason for this is contractual obligations and lack of funding.

At one time, the Mir station became a source of experience for the United States in construction and research on the ISS, and after the Columbia accident, the Russian side, acting in accordance with a partnership agreement with NASA and delivering equipment and astronauts to the station, almost single-handedly saved the project. These circumstances gave rise to criticism of the FKA about the underestimation of Russia's role in the project. So, for example, cosmonaut Svetlana Savitskaya noted that Russia's scientific and technical contribution to the project is underestimated, and that the partnership agreement with NASA does not meet the national interests financially. However, it should be taken into account that at the beginning of the construction of the ISS, the US paid for the Russian segment of the station by providing loans, the repayment of which is provided only by the end of construction.

Speaking about the scientific and technical component, journalists note a small number of new scientific experiments carried out at the station, explaining this by the fact that Russia cannot manufacture and supply to the station the right equipment due to lack of funds. According to Vitaly Lopota, the situation will change when the simultaneous presence of astronauts on the ISS increases to 6 people. In addition, questions are raised about security measures in force majeure situations associated with a possible loss of control of the station. So, according to cosmonaut Valery Ryumin, the danger is that if the ISS becomes uncontrollable, then it cannot be flooded like the Mir station.

According to critics, international cooperation, which is one of the main arguments in favor of the station, is also controversial. As you know, under the terms of an international agreement, countries are not required to share their scientific developments at the station. In 2006-2007, there were no new large initiatives and large projects in the space sphere between Russia and the United States. In addition, many believe that a country that invests 75% of its funds in its project is unlikely to want to have a full partner, which, moreover, is its main competitor in the struggle for a leading position in outer space.

It is also criticized that significant funds were directed to manned programs, and a number of programs to develop satellites failed. In 2003, Yuri Koptev, in an interview with Izvestia, stated that, in order to please the ISS, space science again remained on Earth.

In 2014-2015, among the experts of the Russian space industry, there was an opinion that the practical benefits of orbital stations have already been exhausted - over the past decades, almost everything has been done. important research and discoveries:

The era of orbital stations, which began in 1971, will be a thing of the past. Experts do not see practical expediency either in maintaining the ISS after 2020, or in creating an alternative station with similar functionality: “The scientific and practical returns from the Russian segment of the ISS are significantly lower than from the Salyut-7 and Mir orbital complexes. Scientific organizations not interested in repeating what has already been done.

Magazine "Expert" 2015

Delivery ships

The crews of manned expeditions to the ISS are delivered to the station at the Soyuz TPK according to a "short" six-hour scheme. Until March 2013, all expeditions flew to the ISS on a two-day schedule. Until July 2011, the delivery of goods, the installation of station elements, the rotation of crews, in addition to the Soyuz TPK, were carried out as part of the Space Shuttle program, until the program was completed.

Table of flights of all manned and transport spacecraft to the ISS:

Ship	Type of	Agency/country	The first flight	Last flight	Total flights

Education

What is the height of the ISS orbit from Earth?

January 16, 2018

The ISS, or International Space Station, is a manned orbital vehicle that is used as a multifunctional research center. The station consists of fourteen modules launched in different years. Each of them performs a specific function: bedrooms, laboratories, storage rooms, gyms. The height of the ISS orbit is constantly changing, on average it is 380 km. The work of the station is provided by solar panels placed on the skin.

The ISS modules were built on Earth. Then each of them was launched into space. Astronauts assembled the station in zero gravity. At present, the weight of the ISS is more than four hundred tons. Inside the modules there are narrow corridors along which the astronauts move.

Elements of calculations

During development, the height of the ISS orbit was especially carefully thought out. To prevent the device from falling to Earth and flying into outer space, scientists had to take into account many factors to calculate the flight path: the weight of the station itself, the speed of movement, the possibility of docking ships with cargo.

station orbit

The international spacecraft flies in low earth orbit. The atmosphere here is very rarefied, and the density of particles is unusually low. Correctly calculated height of the ISS orbit is the main condition for the successful flight of the station. This prevents Negative influence Earth's atmosphere, especially its dense layers. After conducting various experiments and making all the necessary analytical calculations, the scientists came to the conclusion that it is best to launch the device into the thermosphere zone. It is spacious enough to ensure the safe existence of the ISS. The thermosphere begins about 85 km from the Earth's surface and stretches for 800 km.

Features of orbit calculation

This work involved scientists of various profiles - mathematicians, physicists, astronomers. When calculating the height of the ISS orbit, the following factors were taken into account:

Launch and flight

Determining at what altitude the ISS orbit should be, its inclination and launch point were taken into account. by the most ideal option(in economic terms) is the launch of the ship from the equator clockwise. This is due to additional indicators of the planet's rotation speed.

Another profitable option is to launch at an inclination equal to the latitude. This type of flight requires a minimum of fuel to perform maneuvers.

When choosing a cosmodrome for launching the station, the international community settled on Baikonur. It is located at a latitude of 46 degrees, and the station's orbital inclination angle is 51.66 degrees. If it flew at the same latitude as Baikonur, then the stages of launched rockets would fall on China or on the territory of Mongolia. Because of this, a different latitude was chosen, which covers most of the countries participating in the project.

Station weight

When determining the orbit, the weight of the ship became an important component. The height of the ISS orbit and the speed of movement directly depend on its mass. But this indicator periodically changes due to updates, additions with new modules, visits to vehicles by cargo ships. Because of this, scientists designed the station and calculated its orbit with the ability to adjust both the flight altitude and direction. At the same time, the possibility of turns and the implementation of various maneuvers were taken into account.

Orbit correction

Several times a year, scientists carry out orbital adjustments. This is usually done to create ballistic conditions when docking cargo ships. As a result of dockings, the mass of the station changes, and the speed also changes due to the friction that occurs. As a result, the flight control center is forced to adjust not only the orbit, but also the speed of movement, as well as the flight altitude. Changes occur with the help of the main engine of the base module. At the right moment, they turn on, and the station increases its altitude and flight speed.

Maneuverability

When calculating the height of the ISS orbit in km from the Earth, possible encounters with space debris were taken into account. At cosmic speeds, even a small fragment can lead to tragedy.

The station has special shields for protection, but this did not reduce the need to calculate an orbit in which the station would rarely encounter debris. For this, a corridor was created. It is two kilometers higher than the trajectory of the station itself and two kilometers lower. From the Earth, constant monitoring of the zone is carried out: the mission control center is watching to ensure that space debris does not get into the corridor. The cleanliness of the zone is calculated in advance. The Americans are constantly monitoring the movement of garbage, making sure that it does not collide with the station. If even the smallest probability of an incident occurs, this is reported in advance to NASA, to the ISS flight control. Having received information about a possible collision, the Americans transmit them Russian center flight control. His ballisticians are preparing a possible maneuver plan to avoid a collision. It calculates very accurately all actions and coordinates. After the plan is completed, the flight path is rechecked and the possibility of a collision is assessed. If all calculations are correct, then the ship changes course. Velocity and altitude corrections are carried out from the Earth without the participation of astronauts.

If space debris is detected late (28 hours or less), then there is no time left for calculations. Then the ISS will avoid a collision according to a pre-compiled standard maneuver for entering a new orbit. If this option proves impossible, the ship will enter another "dangerous" trajectory. In such cases, all station workers are placed in the rescue module and wait for the collision. If it does not occur, the astronauts return to their duties. If there will be a collision, the Soyuz rescue ship will undock and return the astronauts home to Earth. In the entire history of the ISS, there were three cases when the team was waiting for a possible incident, but they all ended favorably.

Airspeed

As is known, the height of the ISS orbit in km is about 380-440 indicated units, and the space flight speed is 27 thousand kilometers per hour. With this speed, the device flies around the Earth in just an hour and a half, and in a day it manages to make sixteen circles.

gravity

This is a force that is very difficult to overcome. Gravity also works on the ISS. It is much less than on the surface of the Earth, and is 90%. To avoid falling on the planet, the ship moves tangentially with great speed- eight kilometers per second. If you look at the night sky, you can see the ISS flying past, and after 90 minutes it will again appear in the sky. During this hour and a half, the ship completely flies around the planet.

The International Space Station is a very expensive project in which many countries of the world take part. Its cost is more than one hundred and fifty billion dollars. On the spaceship astronauts-scientists live and work. They conduct a variety of experiments and research. Each person plays an important role at the station itself and is valuable for its state. To protect people and the station, control centers constantly monitor the flight path, produce all necessary calculations orbit and speed of the ship, calculate possible options for maneuvers. Such calculations help to quickly respond to the appearance of comic garbage and other unforeseen situations.